Although software testing can determine the correctness of software under the assumption of some specific hypotheses (see the hierarchy of testing difficulty below), testing cannot identify all the defects within the software.	儘管軟體測試能夠在針對某些特定假設的預設情況下判定軟體的正確性 (請見下方的測試難度層級)，但仍舊無法識別出軟體內的所有缺陷。
Instead, it furnishes a criticism or comparison that compares the state and behavior of the product against test oracles—principles or mechanisms by which someone might recognize a problem.	軟體測試反而會針對測試判定準則 (可用來找出問題的原則或機制) 比較產品的狀態及行為，或是提出評論。
These oracles may include (but are not limited to) specifications, contracts, comparable products, past versions of the same product, inferences about intended or expected purpose, user or customer expectations, relevant standards, applicable laws, or other criteria.	這些判定準則可包含 (但不限於) 規格、契約、可相互比較的產品、同一項產品的過往版本、關於預定或預期目的的推論、使用者或客戶的期望、相關標準、適用法規或是其他準則。
A primary purpose of testing is to detect software failures so that defects may be discovered and corrected.	測試的主要目的在於偵測出軟體錯誤，以便找出並修正缺陷。
Testing cannot establish that a product functions properly under all conditions, but only that it does not function properly under specific conditions.	測試並無法確保產品能在所有環境條件下正常運作，僅能確知產品會在特定的環境條件下無法正常運作。
The scope of software testing often includes the examination of code as well as the execution of that code in various environments and conditions as well as examining the aspects of code: does it do what it is supposed to do and do what it needs to do.	軟體測試的範圍通常會包括程式碼檢測與檢驗該程式碼在各種環境和條件下的執行情況，以及檢驗程式碼的各個層面：其是否能做到該做且必須做到的事項。
In the current culture of software development, a testing organization may be separate from the development team.	在目前的軟體研發文化中，專責測試的組織會和研發團隊區分開來。
There are various roles for testing team members.	測試團隊的成員身兼多職。
Information derived from software testing may be used to correct the process by which software is developed.	經由軟體測試取得的資訊可用來修正軟體的研發過程。
Every software product has a target audience.	每一項軟體產品都有各自的目標受眾。
For example, the audience for video game software is completely different from banking software.	例如，電玩遊戲的受眾就和銀行軟體的受眾截然不同。
Therefore, when an organization develops or otherwise invests in a software product, it can assess whether the software product will be acceptable to its end users, its target audience, its purchasers and other stakeholders.	因此，組織能夠在研發或投資軟體產品時，評估其終端使用者、目標受眾、購買者和其他利害關係人是否能接受該項軟體產品。
Software testing aids the process of attempting to make this assessment.	軟體測試能在嘗試完成評估的過程中助上一臂之力。
Not all software defects are caused by coding errors.	並非所有軟體缺陷都是因程式碼錯誤所導致。
One common source of expensive defects is requirement gaps, i.e., unrecognized requirements that result in errors of omission by the program designer.	其中一個常見且代價昂貴的缺陷根源為需求差異，即程式設計者並未注意到且導致不慎省略掉的需求。
Requirement gaps can often be non-functional requirements such as testability, scalability, maintainability, performance, and security.	會產生差異的需求通常是非功能性需求，例如可測試性、可擴展性、可維護性、效能表現和安全性。
Software faults occur through the following processes.	軟體故障會透過下列程序發生。
A programmer makes an error (mistake), which results in a defect (fault, bug) in the software source code.	程式設計師有所疏失 (犯錯)，導致軟體的原始碼出現缺陷 (故障、漏洞)。
If this defect is executed, in certain situations the system will produce wrong results, causing a failure.	如果系統執行了這項缺陷，就會在某些狀況下產生錯誤結果，導致故障失常。
Not all defects will necessarily result in failures.	並非所有缺陷一定都會導致故障失常。
For example, defects in the dead code will never result in failures.	例如在無作用的程式碼中的缺陷就不會導致故障失常。
A defect can turn into a failure when the environment is changed.	當環境有所變動時，缺陷可能就會造成故障失常。
Examples of these changes in environment include the software being run on a new computer hardware platform, alterations in source data, or interacting with different software.	環境變動的例子包括在新的電腦硬體平台上執行軟體、原始資料有所改變，或是與不同的軟體產生互動。
A single defect may result in a wide range of failure symptoms.	單一缺陷可能會導致各種不同的故障徵兆。
A fundamental problem with software testing is that testing under all combinations of inputs and preconditions (initial state) is not feasible, even with a simple product.	軟體測試有個根本問題為無法實際結合各種輸入內容及前置條件 (初始狀態) 來進行測試，即便是簡單的產品也難以實行。
This means that the number of defects in a software product can be very large and defects that occur infrequently are difficult to find in testing.	這表示軟體產品中的缺陷數量可能極為龐大，且難以透過測試找出並未經常發生的缺陷。
More significantly, non-functional dimensions of quality (how it is supposed to be versus what it is supposed to do)—usability, scalability, performance, compatibility, reliability—can be highly subjective; something that constitutes sufficient value to one person may be intolerable to another.	其中更為顯著的是，諸如可用性、可擴展性、效能表現、可相容性、可靠性等非功能性的品質構面 (預期樣貌相對於預期功能) 可能具有高度主觀差異—讓某人認為具有充分價值的事物，可能會讓另一個人感到難以忍受。
Software developers can't test everything, but they can use combinatorial test design to identify the minimum number of tests needed to get the coverage they want.	軟體研發人員無法測試完所有項目，但是他們可以使用組合測試設計來確認達到預期覆蓋範圍所需的最少測試次數。
Combinatorial test design enables users to get greater test coverage with fewer tests.	組合測試設計能讓使用者得以透過更少的測試次數達到更為寬廣的測試覆蓋範圍。
Whether they are looking for speed or test depth, they can use combinatorial test design methods to build structured variation into their test cases.	無論他們是要尋求速戰速決或是要測試深度，都可以在他們的測試案例中使用組合測試設計方式來打造出結構完整的變體。
A study conducted by NIST in 2002 reports that software bugs cost the U.S. economy $59.5 billion annually.	據美國國家標準暨技術研究院於 2002 年進行的研究報告指出，軟體漏洞每年在美國耗費了 595 億美元的經濟收入。
More than a third of this cost could be avoided, if better software testing was performed.	如果能執行更優質的軟體測試，就能免除超過三分之一的開銷。
Outsourcing software testing because of costs is very common, with China, the Philippines and India being preferred destinations.	為了節省開銷而將軟體測試外包的情形十分常見，中國、菲律賓和印度均為首選目的地。
Software testing can be done by dedicated software testers.	軟體測試可交由技巧嫻熟的軟體測試人員來進行。
Until the 1980s, the term "software tester" was used generally, but later it was also seen as a separate profession.	直到 1980 年代，「軟體測試人員」一詞曾被廣泛使用，不過後來也被當成一項獨立職業。
Regarding the periods and the different goals in software testing, different roles have been established, such as test manager, test lead, test analyst, test designer, tester, automation developer, and test administrator.	考量到軟體測試過程中的不同階段和目標，不同的的職務角色應運而生，例如測試經理、測試主管、測試分析師、測試設計師、測試人員、自動化研發人員及測試管理員等。
Software testing can also be performed by non-dedicated software testers.	軟體測試也可以交由非專職的軟體測試人員來執行。
Glenford J. Myers initially introduced the separation of debugging from testing in 1979.	Glenford J. Myers 於 1979 年初次將除錯和測試區分開來。
Although his attention was on breakage testing ("A successful test case is one that detects an as-yet undiscovered error.") it illustrated the desire of the software engineering community to separate fundamental development activities, such as debugging, from that of verification.	儘管當初他是將注意力放在破損測試上 (「能偵測到尚未發現到的錯誤，才稱得上是成功的測試。」)，卻也說明了當時的軟體工程師社群有意將基礎軟體開發活動 (比如除錯) 與驗證區分開來。
There are many approaches available in software testing.	軟體測試有許多方法可以使用。
Reviews, walkthroughs, or inspections are referred to as static testing, whereas executing programmed code with a given set of test cases is referred to as dynamic testing.	審查 (review)、逐步審視 (walkthrough) 或檢查 (inspection) 所指的都是靜態測試，透過既定組合的測試用例來執行程式碼則為動態測試。
Dynamic testing takes place when the program itself is run.	動態測試會在程式執行時進行。
Dynamic testing may begin before the program is 100% complete in order to test particular sections of code and are applied to discrete functions or modules.	動態測試可在程式百分之百編撰完成之前開始進行，藉此測試程式碼的特定區段以及套用到離散函數或模組的情形。
Typical techniques for these are either using stubs/drivers or execution from a debugger environment.	一般而言，用來進行這類測試的技術莫過於使用存根/驅動程式或是在除錯工具的環境中執行。
Static testing involves verification, whereas dynamic testing also involves validation.	靜態測試包含了驗證程序，動態測試則包含了確認程序。
Passive testing means verifying the system behavior without any interaction with the software product.	被動測試即表示是在和軟體產品沒有任何互動的情形下驗證系統行為。
Contrary to active testing, testers do not provide any test data but look at system logs and traces.	與主動測試相反，測試人員不會提供任何測試資料，只會查看系統記錄檔和運行軌跡。
They mine for patterns and specific behavior in order to make some kind of decisions.	他們會探尋其模式及特定行為以便做出某種決策。
This is related to offline runtime verification and log analysis.	這與離線運行時間驗證和記錄檔分析相關。
Exploratory testing is an approach to software testing that is concisely described as simultaneous learning, test design and test execution.	探索式測試為軟體測試的其中一種方式，簡而言之即為同步學習、測試設計和測試執行。
Cem Kaner, who coined the term in 1984, defines exploratory testing as "a style of software testing that emphasizes the personal freedom and responsibility of the individual tester to continually optimize the quality of his/her work by treating test-related learning, test design, test execution, and test result interpretation as mutually supportive activities that run in parallel throughout the project."	Cem Kaner 於 1984 年創出「探索式測試」一詞，將其定義為「強調個別測試人員的個人自由度以及責任的軟體測試類別，藉由在測試專案進行的過程中同步探究與測試相關的學習、測試設計、測試執行及測試結果判讀，彼此相輔相成進而持續提升其軟體作業品質。」
Software testing methods are traditionally divided into white- and black-box testing.	傳統的軟體測試方法分為白箱測試和黑箱測試兩種。
These two approaches are used to describe the point of view that the tester takes when designing test cases.	這兩種方法分別形容了測試人員在設計測試用例時所採取的視角。
A hybrid approach called grey-box testing may also be applied to software testing methodology.	有一種名為灰箱測試的混合方法也會應用在軟體測試中。
With the concept of grey-box testing—which develops tests from specific design elements—gaining prominence, this "arbitrary distinction" between black- and white-box testing has faded somewhat.	隨著灰箱測試的概念 (藉由特定的設計元素發展出測試內容) 漸漸成為主流，將測試「武斷區別」為黑箱和白箱的作法也逐漸不為人所用。
Black-box testing (also known as functional testing) treats the software as a "black box," examining functionality without any knowledge of internal implementation, without seeing the source code.	黑箱測試 (也稱作功能性測試) 會將軟體當成一個「黑箱」，在完全不知道其內部實作細節的狀況下檢測其功能性，也不會查看其原始碼。
The testers are only aware of what the software is supposed to do, not how it does it.	測試人員只會注意該軟體理應有何功能，而非其如何運作。
Black-box testing methods include: equivalence partitioning, boundary value analysis, all-pairs testing, state transition tables, decision table testing, fuzz testing, model-based testing, use case testing, exploratory testing, and specification-based testing.	黑箱測試方法內容包括：等價劃分、邊界值分析、全成對組合測試、狀態變遷表、決策表測試、模糊測試、模型測試、使用案例測試、探索式測試和規格測試。
Specification-based testing aims to test the functionality of software according to the applicable requirements.	規格測試的目標在於根據軟體適用的需求來測試其功能。
This level of testing usually requires thorough test cases to be provided to the tester, who then can simply verify that for a given input, the output value (or behavior), either "is" or "is not" the same as the expected value specified in the test case.	這一階層的測試需要將完整的測試用例提供給測試人員， 好讓他們可以直接就所給予的輸入內容驗證其輸出值 (或行為)，看看該值與測試用例中敘明的預期值「相同」或「相異」。
Test cases are built around specifications and requirements, i.e., what the application is supposed to do.	測試用例會依據規格及需求而創造，也就是指該應用程式理應具有的功能。
It uses external descriptions of the software, including specifications, requirements, and designs to derive test cases.	測試用例會依據軟體的外部描述 (包括規格、需求和設計) 來建構其內容。
These tests can be functional or non-functional, though usually functional.	這些測試可以是功能性或是非功能性，但通常還是以功能性居多。
Specification-based testing may be necessary to assure correct functionality, but it is insufficient to guard against complex or high-risk situations.	規格測試也許在確保功能正確方面不可或缺，卻仍不足以防範複雜或高風險等情況。
One advantage of the black box technique is that no programming knowledge is required.	黑箱測試技術的一大優點在於它不需要程式編寫方面的知識。
Whatever biases the programmers may have had, the tester likely has a different set and may emphasize different areas of functionality.	無論程式設計師可能會有怎樣的偏誤成見，測試人員或許會有不同的思考模式，也可能會把重點方在不同的功能區塊。
On the other hand, black-box testing has been said to be "like a walk in a dark labyrinth without a flashlight." Because they do not examine the source code, there are situations when a tester writes many test cases to check something that could have been tested by only one test case or leaves some parts of the program untested.	儘管如此，黑箱測試向來被形容成是「走在黑漆漆的迷宮中，且不帶手電筒」。因為測試人員不會檢測原始碼，所以會出現測試人員編寫出許多測試用例來檢查原本只需要單一用例就能測試完的項目，或是遺漏了程式中某些尚未測試的部分等情況。
This method of test can be applied to all levels of software testing: unit, integration, system and acceptance.	這類測試方法可以應用在所有階層的軟體測試，如：單元、整合、系統和接受度。
It typically comprises most if not all testing at higher levels, but can also dominate unit testing as well.	一般而言，該類測試大多以高階測試為主，但也能夠主導單元測試。
Component interface testing	元件介面測試
Component interface testing is a variation of black-box testing, with the focus on the data values beyond just the related actions of a subsystem component.	元件介面測試為黑箱測試的變化版，重點僅放在子系統元件相關動作背後的資料數值上。
The practice of component interface testing can be used to check the handling of data passed between various units, or subsystem components, beyond full integration testing between those units.	元件介面測試可在不同單元之間的完整整合測試之外，實際用來檢查資料在不同單元或子系統間傳遞的處理情形。
The data being passed can be considered as "message packets" and the range or data types can be checked, for data generated from one unit, and tested for validity before being passed into another unit.	傳遞中的資料可稱為「訊息封包」，且可檢查從其中一個單元產生的資料型態範圍，以及在資料傳遞到另一個單元之前測試其效度。
One option for interface testing is to keep a separate log file of data items being passed, often with a timestamp logged to allow analysis of thousands of cases of data passed between units for days or weeks.	介面測試的其中一個選項為分別儲存各個傳遞資料項目的記錄檔，通常會附上時間戳記以便分析在數天或數週內傳遞的上千筆資料實例。
Tests can include checking the handling of some extreme data values while other interface variables are passed as normal values.	測試內容可包括檢查某些極端資料值在系統將其它介面變數當成標準值傳遞時的處理情形。
Unusual data values in an interface can help explain unexpected performance in the next unit.	介面中不尋常的資料值可協助解釋下一個單元未如預期的效能表現。
The aim of visual testing is to provide developers with the ability to examine what was happening at the point of software failure by presenting the data in such a way that the developer can easily find the information she or he requires, and the information is expressed clearly.	目視檢測的目標在於讓開發人員得以在軟體發生故障當下，透過呈現內容清楚明瞭的資料來輕鬆找到他/她所需的資訊。
At the core of visual testing is the idea that showing someone a problem (or a test failure), rather than just describing it, greatly increases clarity and understanding.	目視檢測的核心想法為讓對方直接看見問題 (或是測試失敗) 而非只是形容問題，可大幅增進其明確及理解程度。
Visual testing, therefore, requires the recording of the entire test process – capturing everything that occurs on the test system in video format.	因此，目視檢測需要將完整的測試過程記錄下來，以影片格式捕捉在測試系統上發生的一切狀況。
Output videos are supplemented by real-time tester input via picture-in-a-picture webcam and audio commentary from microphones.	輸出的影片會輔以子母畫面實時記錄測試人員的輸入過程，以及透過麥克風記錄的評論音訊內容。
Visual testing provides a number of advantages.	目視檢測有諸多優點。
The quality of communication is increased drastically because testers can show the problem (and the events leading up to it) to the developer as opposed to just describing it and the need to replicate test failures will cease to exist in many cases.	因為測試人員可以直接讓開發人員看見問題 (以及造成問題的事件緣由)，所以相對於只形容問題本身，溝通的品質會急遽增長，而且在許多案例當中將不再需要重建測試失敗的過程。
The developer will have all the evidence she or he requires of a test failure and can instead focus on the cause of the fault and how it should be fixed.	開發人員會得到所有他/她需要用來釐清測試失敗的證據，能夠轉而將重點放在其中的因果關係以及如何修正問題。
Ad hoc testing and exploratory testing are important methodologies for checking software integrity, because they require less preparation time to implement, while the important bugs can be found quickly.	隨機測試和探索式測試為用來檢查軟體完整性的重要方法，因為這兩種測試方法在實作上需要的準備時間較短，可快速找到重大漏洞。
In ad hoc testing, where testing takes place in an improvised, impromptu way, the ability of the tester(s) to base testing off documented methods and then improvise variations of those tests can result in more rigorous examination of defect fixes.	隨機測試會以不按牌理出牌的方式進行測試，測試人員能夠使用非經明文規定的測試方法，然後那些隨興變化而出的測試可以讓之後的缺陷修正檢驗更加嚴謹。
However, unless strict documentation of the procedures are maintained, one of the limits of ad hoc testing is lack of repeatability.	然而，除非整體流程有用文字詳細記錄下來，否則難以重複進行會是隨機測試的一大限制。
Grey-box testing (American spelling: gray-box testing) involves having knowledge of internal data structures and algorithms for purposes of designing tests while executing those tests at the user, or black-box level.	灰箱測試包括為了設計測試內容了解內部資料結構及演算法，同時於使用者端或黑箱階層執行測試。
The tester will often have access to both "the source code and the executable binary." Grey-box testing may also include reverse engineering (using dynamic code analysis) to determine, for instance, boundary values or error messages.	測試人員通常能夠存取「原始碼及可執行的二進位制檔案」。灰箱測試可能也會包括透過逆向工程 (使用動態程式碼分析) 來加以判定，例如判定邊界值或錯誤訊息。
Manipulating input data and formatting output do not qualify as grey-box, as the input and output are clearly outside of the "black box" that we are calling the system under test.	操作輸入資料與編排輸出格式並不足以稱為灰箱測試，因為其輸入及輸出內容均明顯位於我們稱之為「黑箱」的測試中系統之外。
This distinction is particularly important when conducting integration testing between two modules of code written by two different developers, where only the interfaces are exposed for the test.	這樣的區別，在針對由兩位不同的開發人員編寫出來的兩組程式碼進行整合測試時尤為重要，因為在測試過程中僅會看見介面。
By knowing the underlying concepts of how the software works, the tester makes better-informed testing choices while testing the software from outside.	在了解了軟體運作的基本概念之後，測試人員可以在透過外觀測試軟體時做出更加明智的抉擇。
Typically, a grey-box tester will be permitted to set up an isolated testing environment with activities such as seeding a database.	一般而言，進行灰箱測試的測試人員有權為填充資料庫等動作設定一個獨立的測試環境。
The tester can observe the state of the product being tested after performing certain actions such as executing SQL statements against the database and then executing queries to ensure that the expected changes have been reflected.	測試人員可在進行某些特定動作 (如針對資料庫執行 SQL 陳述) 之後觀察產品的測試狀態，接著執行查詢以確保預期的變更已修改完成。
Grey-box testing implements intelligent test scenarios, based on limited information.	灰箱測試可根據有限的資訊實行智慧測試情境。
This will particularly apply to data type handling, exception handling, and so on.	這尤其可以應用在資料型態處理、例外處理...等等。
Broadly speaking, there are at least three levels of testing: unit testing, integration testing, and system testing.	概括而言，測試階層至少有三個：單元測試、整合測試及系統測試。
However, a fourth level, acceptance testing, may be included by developers.	然而，開發人員可能會納入接受度測試，列為第四階層。
This may be in the form of operational acceptance testing or be simple end-user (beta) testing, testing to ensure the software meets functional expectations.	其形式可能會是可操作的接受度測試或單純的終端使用者 (測試版) 測試，用來確保軟體符合功能方面的預期。
Tests are frequently grouped into one of these levels by where they are added in the software development process, or by the level of specificity of the test.	測試經常會依據在軟體開發過程中加入的時間點來劃分為其中一個階層，或是依據該項測試所指定的階層。
The first people to inhabit the area now known as Sydney were indigenous Australians having migrated from northern Australia and before that from southeast Asia.	第一批來到現今雪梨地區居住的先民為之前從東南亞地區遷徙至澳洲北部的澳洲原住民。
Radiocarbon dating suggests human activity first started to occur in the Sydney area from around 30,735 years ago.	據放射性碳定年法推測，雪梨地區出現的人類活動最早可追溯至約 30,735 年前。
However, numerous Aboriginal stone tools were found in Western Sydney's gravel sediments that were dated from 45,000 to 50,000 years BP, which would indicate that there was human settlement in Sydney earlier than thought.	然而，在雪梨西部的礫石沉積層中發現了許多原住民族的石製工具，年代推定為距今四萬五千年至五萬年前，這表示人類定居雪梨的時間遠比原先認為的還要久遠。
The first meeting between the native people and the British occurred on 29 April 1770 when Lieutenant James Cook landed at Botany Bay on the Kurnell Peninsula and encountered the Gweagal clan.	原住民族與英國人於 1770 年 4 月 29 日首次碰面，當時英國海軍上尉 James Cook 在科內爾半島 (Kurnell Peninsula) 的博特尼灣 (Botany Bay) 登陸，遇見了格威蓋爾 (Gweagal) 部族。
He noted in his journal that they were confused and somewhat hostile towards the foreign visitors.	他在自己的日誌中提到那些原住民看起來一臉困惑，而且對於外來訪客頗有敵意。
Cook was on a mission of exploration and was not commissioned to start a settlement.	Cook 當時肩負探索任務，並未受託在此建立根據地。
He spent a short time collecting food and conducting scientific observations before continuing further north along the east coast of Australia and claiming the new land he had discovered for Britain.	他花了一小段時間採集食物並進行科學觀察，接著繼續沿著澳洲東岸往北而行，然後宣告自己發現的這片新天地為英國屬地。
Prior to the arrival of the British there were 4,000 to 8,000 native people in Sydney from as many as 29 different clans.	在英國人抵達之前，雪梨當地有四千至八千名原住民，分屬多達二十九個不同部族。
The earliest British settlers called the natives Eora people.	最早在此定居的英國人稱呼當地的原住民為依奧拉 (Eora) 族人。
"Eora" is the term the indigenous population used to explain their origins upon first contact with the British.	「依奧拉」為原住民族在首次接觸到英國人時，用來解釋他們的先祖起源的詞彙。
Its literal meaning is "from this place".Sydney Cove from Port Jackson to Petersham was inhabited by the Cadigal clan.	直譯為「來自此處」之意。從雪梨灣的傑克森港到彼得漢這一帶地區，當初居住著卡地哥 (Cadigal) 部族。
The principal language groups were Darug, Guringai, and Dharawal.	主要使用的語言為達魯格語 (Darug)、古林凱語 (Gurigai) 及塔拉瓦爾語 (Dharawal)。
The earliest Europeans to visit the area noted that the indigenous people were conducting activities such as camping and fishing, using trees for bark and food, collecting shells, and cooking fish.	最早造訪此地的歐洲人曾提到當地的原住民族會進行野營及釣魚等活動，並且會採集樹皮和樹上的食物、捕撈貝類以及煮魚為食。
Britain—before that, England—and Ireland had for a long time been sending their convicts across the Atlantic to the American colonies.	英國 (早年稱為英格蘭) 和愛爾蘭曾經有很長一段時間會遠渡大西洋，將國內的受刑人運送到美洲的殖民地。
That trade was ended with the Declaration of Independence by the United States in 1776.	該運送受刑人的行為隨著美國於 1776 年發表《獨立宣言》而終止。
Britain decided in 1786 to found a new penal outpost in the territory discovered by Cook some 16 years earlier.	英國於 1786 年決定在 Cook 約莫 16 年前發現的領土另尋流放犯人之處。
Captain Philip led the First Fleet of 11 ships and about 850 convicts into Botany Bay on 18 January 1788, though deemed the location unsuitable due to poor soil and a lack of fresh water.	Philip 艦長於 1788 年 1 月 18 日率領第一艦隊共 11 艘船，載運了約 850 名受刑人來到博特尼灣，不過該地區因為土壤貧脊且欠缺淡水資源，並不適合流放犯人。
He travelled a short way further north and arrived at Sydney Cove on 26 January 1788.	於是他往北邊續行了一小段路，於 1788 年 1 月 26 日抵達雪梨灣。
This was to be the location for the new colony.	這裡就此成為新殖民地的所在之處。
Phillip described Port Jackson as being "without exception the finest harbour in the world".	Philip 形容傑克森港為「無庸置疑的世界第一良港」。
The colony was at first to be titled "New Albion" (after Albion, another name for Great Britain), but Phillip decided on "Sydney".	該殖民地一開始以「新阿爾比恩」(New Albion) 為名 (阿爾比恩為當時大英帝國的代稱)，不過 Philip 後來決定命名為「雪梨」。
The official proclamation and naming of the colony happened on 7 February 1788.	其後於 1788 年 2 月 7 日由官方正式公告為殖民地的名稱。
Lieutenant William Dawes produced a town plan in 1790 but it was ignored by the colony's leaders.	海軍上尉 William Dawes 於 1790 年擬定了一份城鎮規劃，卻遭當時的殖民地領導團隊忽視。
Sydney's layout today reflects this lack of planning.	雪梨現今的都市配置樣貌顯見其缺乏規劃。
Between 1788 and 1792, 3,546 male and 766 female convicts were landed at Sydney—many "professional criminals" with few of the skills required for the establishment of a colony. The food situation reached crisis point in 1790.	在 1788 年至 1792 年間，共有 3,546 名男性及 766 名女性受刑人來到雪梨—其中有許多「術有專精的犯人」具有建立殖民地所需的些許技能。1790 年，當地的食物供應情況來到了緊要關頭。
Early efforts at agriculture were fraught and supplies from overseas were scarce.	早年的農業發展困難重重，來自海外的貨物供應也十分稀缺。
From 1791 on, however, the more regular arrival of ships and the beginnings of trade lessened the feeling of isolation and improved supplies.	然而，到了 1791 年之後，定期往返的船隻越來越多。後來隨著貿易開通，孤立感越來越淡，供應狀況也有所改善。
The colony was not founded on the principles of freedom and prosperity.	該處殖民地當初並非是以自由及繁榮做為創建原則。
Maps from this time show no prison buildings; the punishment for convicts was transportation rather than incarceration, but serious offences were penalised by flogging and hanging.	這時候的地圖上還沒出現牢房建築。對於受刑人來說，搭船還比監禁更像處罰，不過重罪要犯還是會受到鞭刑及吊刑等處分。
Phillip sent exploratory missions in search of better soils and fixed on the Parramatta region as a promising area for expansion and moved many of the convicts from late 1788 to establish a small township, which became the main centre of the colony's economic life, leaving Sydney Cove only as an important port and focus of social life.	Phillip 派遣探索團隊尋找更優質的土壤，並且認定帕拉瑪塔 (Parramatta) 為具有發展潛力的地區。接著從 1788 年年末開始將許多受刑人遷移至此，開始建立小型城鎮，並在之後成為該殖民地的經濟生活重心，讓雪梨灣單純成為一座重要港灣，並聚焦於社交生活。
Poor equipment and unfamiliar soils and climate continued to hamper the expansion of farming from Farm Cove to Parramatta and Toongabbie, but a building programme, assisted by convict labour, advanced steadily.	設備破舊加上對於當地的土壤及氣候並不熟悉，在在妨礙著從農場灣 (Farm Cove) 到帕拉瑪塔和圖恩加比 (Toongabbie) 一帶的農業拓展，不過在受刑人付出勞力協助之下，有一項建設計畫得以穩步向前。
Officers and convicts alike faced starvation as supplies ran low and little could be cultivated from the land.	因為供應量短缺且土地難以栽種作物，官員和受刑人同樣都面臨著飢荒處境。
The region's indigenous population was also suffering.	當地的原住民族同樣也叫苦連天。
It is estimated that half of the native people in Sydney died during the smallpox epidemic of 1789.	據估計，在 1789 年的天花疫情當中，雪梨的原民人口有半數喪命。
Enlightened for his age, Phillip's personal intent was to establish harmonious relations with local Aboriginal people and try to reform as well as discipline the convicts of the colony.	Philip 隨著年齡增長而有所頓悟，意欲盡一己之力與當地的原住民族建立和諧友好的關係，並試圖改革紀律與規範殖民地上的受刑人。
Phillip and several of his officers – most notably Watkin Tench – left behind journals and accounts which tell of immense hardships during the first years of settlement.	Philip 和麾下數名軍官 (其中最有名氣的是 Watkin Tench) 留下了多本日誌和帳款記錄，可從中得知他們在建立根據地的第一年遇到多麼艱困的處境。
Part of Macquarie's effort to transform the colony was his authorisation for convicts to re-enter society as free citizens.	昔日總督 Macquarie 曾透過自身權力允許受刑人以自由公民身分重新融入社會，努力讓殖民地有所轉變。
Roads, bridges, wharves, and public buildings were constructed using convict labour and by 1822 the town had banks, markets, and well-established thoroughfares.	在受刑人齊心勞力之下，道路、橋樑、碼頭及公共建築紛紛建設完成。到了 1822 年，鎮上已有銀行、市場和規劃完善的道路系統。
Parramatta Road was opened in 1811, which is one of Sydney's oldest roads and Australia's first highway between two cities – Sydney CBD and Parramatta.	帕拉瑪塔公路於 1811 年開通，為雪梨歷史最為悠久的一條公路，也是澳洲首條連結雪梨中心商業區和帕拉瑪塔的城際公路。
Conditions in the colony were not conducive to the development of a thriving new metropolis, but the more regular arrival of ships and the beginnings of maritime trade (such as wool) helped to lessen the burden of isolation.	雖然殖民地的環境條件難以發展出繁華的大都會，但隨著定期往返的航班越來越多以及海上貿易開展 (比如羊毛)，孤絕於世的陳重負擔也隨之緩解。
Between 1788 and 1792, convicts and their jailers made up the majority of the population; in one generation, however, a population of emancipated convicts who could be granted land began to grow.	在 1788 年至 1792 年間，受刑人及監獄管理員為當地的主要人口。然而到了下一代，期滿釋放且獲得土地的受刑人人口開始增長。
These people pioneered Sydney's private sector economy and were later joined by soldiers whose military service had expired, and later still by free settlers who began arriving from Britain.	這些人是雪梨私人企業的先驅，退伍軍人隨後也加入私營行列，接著是漸漸開始從英國遷居到這裡的自由移民。
Governor Phillip departed the colony for England on 11 December 1792, with the new settlement having survived near starvation and immense isolation for four years.	Philip 總督於 1792 年 12 月 11 日自殖民地返回英國，當時這個新的根據地已經在瀕臨飢荒和龐大的孤絕感中度過了四年。
Between 1790 and 1816, Sydney became one of the many sites of the Australian Frontier Wars, a series of conflicts between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the resisting Indigenous clans.	在 1790 年至 1816 年間，雪梨成為澳洲邊界戰爭 (Australian Frontier Wars) 的兵家必爭之地，大英帝國和原民反抗軍之間衝突不斷。
In 1790, when the British established farms along the Hawkesbury River, an Aboriginal leader Pemulwuy resisted the Europeans by waging a guerrilla-style warfare on the settlers in a series of wars known as the Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars which took place in western Sydney.	1790 年，當英國人沿著霍克斯布里 (Hawkesbury) 河開闢田地時，原民部族領袖 Pemulwuy 對沿岸居民展開一系列游擊戰，藉此抵禦歐洲人入侵。這一系列戰事發生在雪梨西部，名為「霍尼戰爭」(Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars)。
He raided farms until Governor Macquarie dispatched troops from the British Army 46th Regiment in 1816 and ended the conflict by killing 14 Indigenous Australians in a raid on their campsite.	他在沿岸農田大肆破壞，直到 Macquarie 總督於 1816 年派遣英軍第 46 團的部隊前來為止。該部隊大舉進犯原民部落，殺害了 14 名澳洲原住民，並就此為雙方衝突畫下句點。
In 1804, Irish convicts led the Castle Hill Rebellion, a rebellion by convicts against colonial authority in the Castle Hill area of the British colony of New South Wales.	1804 年，愛爾蘭裔的受刑人發動「堡壘山起義」(Castle Hill Rebellion )，帶領受刑人反抗堡壘山地區的殖民地官署。堡壘山位於新南威爾斯的英國殖民地上。
The first and only major convict uprising in Australian history suppressed under martial law, the rebellion ended in a battle fought between convicts and the colonial forces of Australia at Rouse Hill.	這場澳洲史上第一起也是唯一一起受刑人揭竿起義的事件，隨後讓戒嚴法壓了下去。最後一場受刑人對抗殖民政府軍的戰役發生在澳洲的勞斯山 (Rouse Hill)。 
The Rum Rebellion of 1808 was the only successful armed takeover of government in Australian history, where the Governor of New South Wales, William Bligh, was ousted by the New South Wales Corps under the command of Major George Johnston, who led the rebellion.	1808 年的「蘭姆酒暴動」(Rum Rebellion) 為澳洲史上唯一一起成功以武裝佔領政府機關的動亂事件。當時的新南威爾斯總督 William Bligh 在暴動領導人 George Johnston 少校的命令之下，遭新南威爾斯軍驅逐出境。
Conflicts arose between the governors and the officers of the Rum Corps, many of which were land owners such as John Macarthur.	蘭姆軍的軍官和高層人員之間的衝突越演越烈，其中有許多人是當時的地主，比如 John Macarthur。
Early Sydney was molded by the hardship suffered by early settlers.	早年的雪梨是由先民胼手胝足一磚一瓦打造出來。
In the early years, drought and disease caused widespread problems, but the situation soon improved.	那些年，乾旱和疾病氾濫成災，但是情況很快就獲得改善。
The military colonial government was reliant on the army, the New South Wales Corps.	殖民地的軍政府仰賴著當地的新南威爾斯軍團。
Macquarie served as the last autocratic Governor of New South Wales, from 1810 to 1821 and had a leading role in the social and economic development of Sydney which saw it transition from a penal colony to a budding free society.	Macquarie 為新南威爾斯的末代專制總督，於 1810 年至 1821 年的任期當中主導雪梨的社會及經濟發展，看著它逐漸從流放犯人的殖民地轉變成剛剛萌芽的自由社會。
He established public works, a bank, churches, and charitable institutions and sought good relations with the Aborigines.	他建造了許多公共工程、銀行、教堂和慈善機構，並企圖與原住民建立良好關係。
Over the course of the 19th-century Sydney established many of its major cultural institutions.	雪梨有許多重要的文化機構都是在十九世紀落成啟用。
Governor Lachlan Macquarie's vision for Sydney included the construction of grand public buildings and institutions fit for a colonial capital.	Lachlan Macquarie 總督對於雪梨的願景包括了為這座殖民之都建造規模宏大的公共建築及相關機構。
Macquarie Street began to take shape as a ceremonial thoroughfare of grand buildings.	麥覺理街 (Macquarie Street) 開始成為兩旁林立著雄偉建築的禮賓大道。
The year 1840 was the final year of convict transportation to Sydney, which by this time had a population of 35,000.	1840 年為運送受刑人至雪梨的最後一年，當時人口已經達到三萬五千人。
Gold was discovered in the colony in 1851 and with it came thousands of people seeking to make money.	1851 年，有人在這處殖民地發現金礦，隨後有上千人懷抱著發財夢來此淘金。
Sydney's population reached 200,000 by 1871 and during this time the city entered a period of prosperity which was reflected in the construction of grand edifices.	雪梨人口於 1871 年來到二十萬大關，城市的繁華程度可從此時建設的雄偉大廈略知一二。
Temperance coffee palaces, hotels as well as other civic buildings such as libraries and museums were erected in the city.	無酒精咖啡宮、旅館以及其他如圖書館和博物館等民間建築，如雨後春筍般林立在城市之中。
Demand for infrastructure to support the growing population and subsequent economic activity led to massive improvements to the city's railway and port systems throughout the 1850s and 1860s.	在 1850 年代及 1860 年代，為支持人口增長以及隨之蓬勃發展的經濟活動，對於基礎建設的需求表現在城市鐵路及港口交通系統的大規模改善上。
After a period of rapid growth, further discoveries of gold in Victoria began drawing new residents away from Sydney towards Melbourne in the 1850s, which created a strong rivalry between Sydney and Melbourne that still exists to this day.	經歷過一段快速成長期之後，有人在澳洲的維多利亞省進一步挖掘出金礦，吸引新一代居民於 1850 年代自雪梨轉往墨爾本而去，造就雪梨與墨爾本之間的瑜亮情結，延續至今。
Nevertheless, Sydney exceeded Melbourne's population in the early twentieth century and remains Australia's largest city.	然而，雪梨的人口早在二十世紀早期就超過了墨爾本，至今仍然是澳洲第一大城。
Following the depression of the 1890s, the six colonies agreed to form the Commonwealth of Australia.	接著在 1890 年代的經濟蕭條時期，澳洲土地上的六個殖民地同意共組澳大利亞聯邦。
Sydney's beaches had become popular seaside holiday resorts, but daylight sea bathing was considered indecent until the early 20th century.	雪梨的海灘成為假日看海踏浪的休閒好去處，不過當時仍將日光浴視為不雅行為，要到二十世紀早期才正式解禁。
Under the reign of Queen Victoria federation of the six colonies occurred on 1 January 1901.	在維多利亞女皇的統治之下，由六個殖民地合組的聯邦政府於 1901 年 1 月 1 日正式成立。
Sydney, with a population of 481,000, then became the state capital of New South Wales.	當時人口為 481,000 人的雪梨便成為新南威爾斯州的首都。
The Great Depression of the 1930s had a severe effect on Sydney's economy, as it did with most cities throughout the industrial world.	1930 年代的經濟大蕭條重創了當時工業世界大多數的城市，雪梨的經濟也隨之受到嚴重打擊。
For much of the 1930s up to one in three breadwinners was unemployed.	在 1930 年代努力養家餬口的老百姓中，最多每三個人就有一個人失業。
Construction of the Sydney Harbour Bridge served to alleviate some of the effects of the economic downturn by employing 1,400 men between 1924 and 1932.	建於 1924 年至 1932 年間的雪梨港灣大橋創造了 1,400 個就業機會，一定程度減緩了經濟衰退所帶來的影響。
The population continued to boom despite the Depression, having reached 1 million in 1925.	儘管處於經濟蕭條時期，人口依舊持續增長，並於 1925 年來到百萬大關。
The city had one of the largest tram networks in the British Empire until it was dismantled in 1961.	在大英帝國於 1961 年分崩離析之前，這座城市擁有帝國境內規模最大的路面電車路網。
When Britain declared war on Germany in 1939, Australia also entered.	當英國於 1939 年向德國宣戰時，澳洲也一同參戰。
During the war Sydney experienced a surge in industrial development to meet the needs of a wartime economy.	戰爭期間，為了因應戰時經濟需求，雪梨的工業急速發展。
Far from mass unemployment, there were now labour shortages and women becoming active in male roles.	此時不但沒有大量失業問題，反而還出現勞力短缺，於是女性也開始可以擔任男性的職務角色。
Sydney's harbour was attacked by the Japanese in May and June 1942 with a direct attack from Japanese submarines with some loss of life.	雪梨港灣曾於 1942 年的 5 月和 6 月遭到日軍潛艇直接攻擊，造成多人喪生。
Households throughout the city had built air raid shelters and performed drills.	城市裡的家家戶戶都紛紛建造了防空避難室並進行演習。
Consequently, Sydney experienced population growth and increased cultural diversification throughout the post-war period.	結果，雪梨的人口在戰後持續增長，文化也越來越繽紛多元。
The people of Sydney warmly welcomed Queen Elizabeth II in 1954 when the reigning monarch stepped onto Australian soil for the first time to commence her Australian Royal Tour.	雪梨民眾曾於 1954 年熱烈歡迎女皇伊莉莎白二世大駕光臨。那是女皇首度踏上澳洲的土地，展開澳洲皇家之旅。
Having arrived on the Royal Yacht Britannia through Sydney Heads, Her Majesty came ashore at Farm Cove.	女皇陛下搭上皇家遊艇「不列顛尼亞號」(Britannia) 穿越雪梨角 (Sydney Heads)，抵達農場灣。
There were 1.7 million people living in Sydney at 1950 and almost 3 million by 1975.	雪梨的居住人口於 1950 年達到一百七十萬，並於 1975 年逼近三百萬。
The Australian government launched a large scale multicultural immigration program.	澳洲政府此時開始實施大規模的多元文化移民計畫。
New industries such as information technology, education, financial services and the arts have risen.	諸如資訊科技、教育、金融服務及藝術等新興產業接連開始蓬勃發展。
Sydney's iconic Opera House was opened in 1973 by Her Majesty.	雪梨遠近馳名的歌劇院於 1973 年由女皇陛下親自主持開幕儀式。
A new skyline of concrete and steel skyscrapers swept away much of the old lowrise and often sandstone skyline of the city in the 1960s and 1970s, with Australia Square being the tallest building in Sydney from its completion in 1967 until 1976 and is also notable for being the first skyscraper in Australia.	在 1960 年代及 1970 年代，由水泥及鋼骨摩天大樓構成的嶄新天際線取代了絕大部分由低矮砂岩平房構成的天際線。於 1967 年完工啟用的澳洲廣場大樓 (Australia Square) 為當時至 1976 年間的第一高樓，也因為是澳洲的第一座摩天大樓而享譽國際。
This prolific growth of contemporary high-rise architecture was put in check by heritage laws in the 1990s onwards, which prevent demolition of any structure deemed historically significant.	蓬勃發展的當代高樓層建築於 1990 年代之後納入遺產法規的管轄範圍，避免有任何具有歷史意義的建築結構遭到拆毀。
Since the 1970s Sydney has undergone a rapid economic and social transformation.	從 1970 年代開始，雪梨歷經了急遽的經濟及社會變遷。
As a result, the city has become a cosmopolitan melting pot.	這座城市就此成為一座猶如大熔爐般的國際大都會。
To relieve congestion on the Sydney Harbour Bridge, the Sydney Harbour Tunnel opened in August 1992.	為了紓解雪梨港灣大橋的車流量，雪梨港灣隧道於 1992 年 8 月全線開通。
The 2000 Summer Olympics were held in Sydney and became known as the "best Olympic Games ever" by the President of the International Olympic Committee.	2000 年的夏季奧運於雪梨舉行，且讓國際奧委會主席盛讚為「有史以來最好的一屆奧運會」。
Sydney has maintained extensive political, economic and cultural influence over Australia as well as international renown in recent decades.	雪梨在最近這幾十年間一直是澳洲的政治、經濟及文化重鎮，且享譽國際。
Following the Olympics, the city hosted the 2003 Rugby World Cup, the APEC Australia 2007 and Catholic World Youth Day 2008, led by Pope Benedict XVI.	在奧運過後，雪梨接連主辦了 2003 年的世界盃橄欖球賽、2007 年的澳洲亞太經濟合作會議 (APEC)，以及 2008 年由教皇本篤十六世主持的天主教世界青年日活動。
Sydney is a coastal basin with the Tasman Sea to the east, the Blue Mountains to the west, the Hawkesbury River to the north, and the Woronora Plateau to the south.	雪梨為一處海岸盆地，東臨塔斯曼海 (Tasman Sea)，西側為藍山山脈 (Blue Mountains)，北方有霍克斯布里河 (Hawkesbury River) 流過，南邊則是沃倫諾拉高原 (Woronora Plateau)。
The inner city measures 25 square kilometres (10 square miles), the Greater Sydney region covers 12,367 square kilometres (4,775 square miles), and the city's urban area is 1,687 square kilometres (651 square miles) in size.	內城區佔地 25 平方公里 (約 10 平方英里)，大雪梨地區涵蓋了 12,367 平方公里 (約 4,775 平方英里)，市區大小則為 1,687 平方公里 (約 651 平方英里)。
Sydney spans two geographic regions.	雪梨橫跨了兩個地理分區。
The Cumberland Plain lies to the south and west of the Harbour and is relatively flat.	坎伯蘭平原 (Cumberland Plain) 位處港灣的西側及南側，地勢相對平坦。
The Hornsby Plateau is located to the north and is dissected by steep valleys.	港灣北側為霍恩斯比高原 (Hornsby Plateau)，由陡峭的山谷分割開來。
The flat areas of the south were the first to be developed as the city grew.	南側的平坦地區為這座城市的開發起源地。
Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and named it Staten Land "in honour of the States General" (Dutch parliament).	荷蘭探險家 Abel Tasman 曾在 1642 年看見紐西蘭，並將其命名為「荷蘭議會之地」(Statem Land)，以此向荷蘭國家議會 (State General) 致敬。
He wrote, "it is possible that this land joins to the Staten Land but it is uncertain", referring to a landmass of the same name at the southern tip of South America, discovered by Jacob Le Maire in 1616.	他寫道：「這片土地有可能是荷蘭議會之地的一部分，但尚未確定」。這裡所提到的「荷蘭議會之地」是指 Jacob Le Maire 於 1616 年在南美洲南端發現的一處同名土地。
In 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland.	1645 年，荷蘭的製圖師團隊挪用了荷蘭本地的西蘭省 (Zeeland) 之名，將該處土地重新命名為「新西蘭」(Nova Zeelandia)。
British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand.	英國探險家 James Cook 隨後以英文重新拼寫，更名為「紐西蘭」(New Zealand)。
Aotearoa (pronounced /ˌaʊtɛəˈroʊ.ə/; often translated as "land of the long white cloud") is the current Māori name for New Zealand.	「Aotearoa」(發音為 /ˌaʊtɛəˈroʊ.ə/，通常譯為「悠長白雲之地」) 為紐西蘭目前的毛利語名稱。
It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the whole country before the arrival of Europeans, with Aotearoa originally referring to just the North Island.	目前並不清楚毛利人是否曾在歐洲人抵達之前就命名了這整座國家，而「Aotearoa」原先只是用來指稱北島。
Māori had several traditional names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui (the fish of Māui) for the North Island and Te Waipounamu (the waters of greenstone) or Te Waka o Aoraki (the canoe of Aoraki) for the South Island.	毛利人曾經有好幾個用來稱呼這兩座主要島嶼的傳統名稱，包括用來稱呼北島的 Te Ika-a-Māui (毛伊魚島) 和用來稱呼南島的 Te Waipounamu (碧石水岸) 或 Te Waka o Aoraki (庫克山下的獨木舟)。
Early European maps labelled the islands North (North Island), Middle (South Island) and South (Stewart Island / Rakiura).	早年的歐洲地圖曾標示出北島 (即今日的北島)、中島 (今日的南島) 和南島 (今日的斯圖爾特島)。
In 1830, mapmakers began to use "North" and "South" on their maps to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907 this was the accepted norm.	1830 年，製圖師開始在地圖上使用「北島」和「南島」來區分兩座大島，隨後到了 1907 年便普遍為世人所接受。
The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised, and names and alternative names were formalised in 2013.	紐西蘭地理委員會 (New Zealand Geographic Board) 於 2009 年發現「北島」和「南島」其實從未列為正式名稱，其後於 2013 年正式確立了官方名稱及別名。
This set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu.	從此之後，北島可稱為「北島」或「Te Ika-a-Māui」，南島則為「南島」或「Te Waipounamu」。
For each island, either its English or Māori name can be used, or both can be used together.	兩座島嶼都可以分別使用英文名稱或毛利語別名，或是併行使用。
New Zealand was one of the last major landmasses settled by humans.	紐西蘭是人類到了近代才正式定居的主要陸地區域之一。
Radiocarbon dating, evidence of deforestation and mitochondrial DNA variability within Māori populations suggest New Zealand was first settled by Eastern Polynesians between 1250 and 1300, concluding a long series of voyages through the southern Pacific islands.	據放射性碳定年法、曾大範圍砍伐森林的證據和毛利族人的粒線體基因變異情形推斷，紐西蘭的第一代居民可能是在西元 1250 年至 1300 年間途經諸多南太平洋海島，最後來此定居的東玻里尼西亞人 (Eastern Polynesian)。
Over the centuries that followed, these settlers developed a distinct culture now known as Māori.	在之後的數百年間，這群先民逐漸發展出獨特的文化體系，即現今所知的毛利文化。
The population was divided into iwi (tribes) and hapū (subtribes) who would sometimes cooperate, sometimes compete and sometimes fight against each other.	島上的居民分成許多 iwi (部落) 和 hapū (分支部落)，有時會彼此合作，有時則會相互競爭，有的時候還會集體械鬥。
At some point a group of Māori migrated to Rēkohu, now known as the Chatham Islands, where they developed their distinct Moriori culture.	有一群毛利族人曾在某個時間點遷居至 Rēkohu (即今日的查塔姆群島)，隨後發展出獨樹一格的莫里奧里 (Moriori) 文化。
The Moriori population was all but wiped out between 1835 and 1862, largely because of Taranaki Māori invasion and enslavement in the 1830s, although European diseases also contributed.	但是莫里奧里族人卻在 1835 年至 1862 年間慘遭滅族，主因為塔拉納基地區 (Taranki) 的毛利族人於 1830 年代大舉入侵並以當地居民為奴，來自歐洲的疫病也是其中一部分原因。
In 1862 only 101 survived, and the last known full-blooded Moriori died in 1933.	到了 1862 年，僅剩下 101 人存活。目前已知最後一位血統純正的莫里奧里族人則於 1933 年逝世。
The first Europeans known to have reached New Zealand were Dutch explorer Abel Tasman and his crew in 1642.	據目前所知，第一批抵達紐西蘭的歐洲人是於 1642 年踏上這塊土地的荷蘭探險家 Abel Tasman 和同行的隊員。
In a hostile encounter, four crew members were killed and at least one Māori was hit by canister shot.	在登島時的流血衝突中，有四名隊員遭到殺害，至少有一名毛利族人遭受槍擊。
Europeans did not revisit New Zealand until 1769 when British explorer James Cook mapped almost the entire coastline.	歐洲人直到 1769 年才再度造訪紐西蘭，當時的英國探險家 James Cook 在地圖上繪製了近乎完整的海岸線。
Following Cook, New Zealand was visited by numerous European and North American whaling, sealing and trading ships.	在 Cook 之後，有許多歐洲和北美地區的捕鯨船、貨運船和商船造訪了紐西蘭。
They traded European food, metal tools, weapons and other goods for timber, Māori food, artefacts and water.	他們用歐洲的食物、金屬器具、武器和其他貨物來此交易木材、毛利人的食物、工藝品和水資源。
The introduction of the potato and the musket transformed Māori agriculture and warfare.	在引進馬鈴薯和滑膛槍 (musket) 之後，毛利族人的農業和作戰能力有所轉變。
Potatoes provided a reliable food surplus, which enabled longer and more sustained military campaigns.	馬鈴薯提供了可靠穩定的食糧補給，得以支撐時間更長且更為持久的軍事活動，
The resulting intertribal Musket Wars encompassed over 600 battles between 1801 and 1840, killing 30,000–40,000 Māori.	這導致了各個部落在 1801 年至 1840 年間發生了滑膛槍戰爭，大小戰役超過 600 場，造成 30,000 至 40,000 名毛利族人喪生。
From the early 19th century, Christian missionaries began to settle New Zealand, eventually converting most of the Māori population.	基督教的傳教士從十九世紀早期就開始定居紐西蘭，最終讓大多數的毛利族人受洗入教。
The Māori population declined to around 40% of its pre-contact level during the 19th century; introduced diseases were the major factor.	相較於與外人接觸之前，毛利族人的人口數量在十九世紀當中減少了四成，外來的疫病為主要因素。
In 1788 Captain Arthur Phillip assumed the position of Governor of the new British colony of New South Wales which according to his commission included New Zealand.	1788 年，Arthur Philip 船長在英國的新殖民地 (即新南威爾斯) 就任總督一職，其管轄範圍包括了紐西蘭。
The British Government appointed James Busby as British Resident to New Zealand in 1832 following a petition from northern Māori.	1832 年，英國政府在收到北部毛利族人的請願之後，委派 James Busby 就任英國駐紐西蘭大使。
In 1835, following an announcement of impending French settlement by Charles de Thierry, the nebulous United Tribes of New Zealand sent a Declaration of Independence to King William IV of the United Kingdom asking for protection.	1835 年，在 Charles de Thierry 公開宣告即將在此建立法屬根據地之後，紐西蘭的聯合部落不知該如何是好，於是遞交了一份獨立聲明給英皇威廉四世，尋求軍事庇護。
Ongoing unrest, the proposed settlement of New Zealand by the New Zealand Company (which had already sent its first ship of surveyors to buy land from Māori) and the dubious legal standing of the Declaration of Independence prompted the Colonial Office to send Captain William Hobson to claim sovereignty for the United Kingdom and negotiate a treaty with the Māori.	鑒於風波尚未平息，原先打算在紐西蘭建立根據地的紐西蘭公司 (之前已經派出第一批調查團隊向毛利族人購買土地) 以及獨立宣言曖昧不明的法律地位促使英國殖民地辦公室指派 William Hobson 隊長前往宣示英國主權，並與毛利族人進行條約談判。
The Treaty of Waitangi was first signed in the Bay of Islands on 6 February 1840.	1840 年 2 月 6 日，《懷唐伊條約》(The Treaty of Waitangi) 首度於島灣地區 (Bay of Islands) 進行簽署。
In response to the New Zealand Company's attempts to establish an independent settlement in Wellington and French settlers purchasing land in Akaroa, Hobson declared British sovereignty over all of New Zealand on 21 May 1840, even though copies of the Treaty were still circulating throughout the country for Māori to sign.	為回應紐西蘭公司在威靈頓 (Wellington) 建設獨立根據地的企圖，以及法裔居民在阿卡羅阿 (Akaroa) 購買土地一事，Hobson 於 1840 年 5 月 21 日公開宣示英國具有紐西蘭全境的主權，儘管當時的條約複本還在各毛利部族之間傳遞以完成簽署。
With the signing of the Treaty and declaration of sovereignty the number of immigrants, particularly from the United Kingdom, began to increase.	有了條約簽署及主權宣示之後，移民人數 (尤其是來自英國的移民) 開始增加。
New Zealand, still part of the colony of New South Wales, became a separate Colony of New Zealand on 1 July 1841.	當時還隸屬於新南威爾斯的紐西蘭，後來於 1841 年 7 月 1 日獨自成為直屬英國的紐西蘭殖民地。
Armed conflict began between the Colonial government and	1843 年，殖民政府開始和
Māori in 1843 with the Wairau Affray over land and disagreements over sovereignty.	毛利族人為了土地和主權糾紛發生武裝衝突，史稱「懷勞之爭」(Wairau Affray)。
These conflicts, mainly in the North Island, saw thousands of Imperial troops and the Royal Navy come to New Zealand and became known as the New Zealand Wars.	這些衝突事件主要發生在北島，接著有上千名帝國軍隊和皇家海軍進駐紐西蘭，逐漸演變成知名的「紐西蘭戰爭」(New Zealand Wars)。
Following these armed conflicts, large amounts of Māori land was confiscated by the government to meet settler demands.	在這些武裝衝突過後，為因應殖民需求，有大量的毛利族人土地遭到政府沒收。
The colony gained a representative government in 1852 and the first Parliament met in 1854.	1852 年，紐西蘭成立了代議政府，並於 1854 首度召開議會。
In 1856 the colony effectively became self-governing, gaining responsibility over all domestic matters other than native policy.	1856 年，紐西蘭成為具有實質效力的自治區，負責掌管除原住民政策之外的所有境內事務。
(Control over native policy was granted in the mid-1860s.)	(原住民政策的管理權責則於 1860 年代中期獲准)
Following concerns that the South Island might form a separate colony, premier Alfred Domett moved a resolution to transfer the capital from Auckland to a locality near Cook Strait.	因為擔憂南島成為獨立的殖民地，時任總理的 Alfred Domett 決定將首都從奧克蘭遷至庫克海峽 (Cook Strait) 附近。
Wellington was chosen for its central location, with Parliament officially sitting there for the first time in 1865.	威靈頓因位居中央而雀屏中選，議會於 1865 年首度在該地正式開議。
In 1891 the Liberal Party came to power as the first organised political party.	1891 年，自由黨 (Liberal Party) 以第一個具有組織規章的政黨之姿取得政權。
The Liberal Government, led by Richard Seddon for most of its period in office, passed many important social and economic measures.	自由黨政府執政期間，大多由 Richard Seddon 擔任政府領導人，通過了許多重要的社會及經濟措施相關法案。
In 1893 New Zealand was the first nation in the world to grant all women the right to vote and in 1894 pioneered the adoption of compulsory arbitration between employers and unions.	1893 年，紐西蘭成為全球第一個將投票權授予所有女性的國家，並於 1894 年成為採用強制仲裁處理勞資糾紛的先驅。
In 1907, at the request of the New Zealand Parliament, King Edward VII proclaimed New Zealand a Dominion within the British Empire, reflecting its self-governing status.	1907 年，在紐西蘭議會的請求之下，英皇愛德華七世宣布紐西蘭成為大英帝國的自治領 (Dominion)，以反映其自治現況。 
In 1947 the country adopted the Statute of Westminster, confirming that the British Parliament could no longer legislate for New Zealand without the consent of New Zealand.	1947 年，紐西蘭政府採納了《西敏法令》(Statute of Westminister)，確認英國議會不可在未經紐西蘭同意下為紐西蘭制定任何法規。
Early in the 20th century, New Zealand was involved in world affairs, fighting in the First and Second World Wars and suffering through the Great Depression.	紐西蘭於二十世紀早期參與了許多國際事務，包括參戰第一次及第二次世界大戰，並且在經濟大蕭條時期困苦度日。
The depression led to the election of the First Labour Government and the establishment of a comprehensive welfare state and a protectionist economy.	經濟大蕭條讓紐西蘭工黨首度贏得大選，建立了全方位的福利國家制度及以保護主義為首的經濟體制。
New Zealand experienced increasing prosperity following the Second World War and Māori began to leave their traditional rural life and move to the cities in search of work.	紐西蘭在二戰結束後迎來榮景，毛利族人也開始離開傳統的鄉間生活，前往都市尋求工作機會。
A Māori protest movement developed, which criticised Eurocentrism and worked for greater recognition of Māori culture and of the Treaty of Waitangi.	批判歐洲中心主義的毛利族抗爭運動此時應運而生，戮力於讓更多人認識毛利族人的文化以及《懷唐伊條約》。
In 1975, a Waitangi Tribunal was set up to investigate alleged breaches of the Treaty, and it was enabled to investigate historic grievances in 1985.	1975 年，懷唐伊委員會 (Waitangi Tribunal) 正式成立，負責調查條約中疑似侵害他人權利的部分條文，並於 1985 年獲准調查歷史上的種種恩怨情仇。
The government has negotiated settlements of these grievances with many iwi, although Māori claims to the foreshore and seabed have proved controversial in the 2000s.	政府與許多部落就過去的恩怨達成和解，不過毛利族人於 2000 年後對於當地海岸及海床聲稱的主權仍有諸多爭議。
New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy, although its constitution is not codified.	紐西蘭為實行內閣制的君主立憲國家，不過其憲法並未正式編成法典。
Elizabeth II is the Queen of New Zealand and thus the head of state.	英國女皇伊莉莎白二世為現今紐西蘭的國家元首。
The Queen is represented by the governor-general, whom she appoints on the advice of the prime minister.	總督為女皇的職務代理人，會先由總理提名，再由女皇親自任命。
The governor-general can exercise the Crown's prerogative powers, such as reviewing cases of injustice and making appointments of ministers, ambassadors and other key public officials, and in rare situations, the reserve powers (e.g. the power to dissolve parliament or refuse the royal assent of a bill into law).	總督可行使皇室賦予的特權，諸如審視冤案、任命部會首長、大使及其他重要的政府官員，以及在罕見的情況下動用其儲備權力 (例如解散國會或拒絕讓皇室同意的法案完成立法程序)。
The powers of the monarch and the governor-general are limited by constitutional constraints and they cannot normally be exercised without the advice of ministers.	君主及總督的權力均受憲法規範，一般來說必須先徵詢總理意見才能行使。
The New Zealand Parliament holds legislative power and consists of the Queen and the House of Representatives.	紐西蘭國會具有立法權，由女皇及眾議院所組成。
It also included an upper house, the Legislative Council, until this was abolished in 1950.	國會體制中曾有專職為立法委員會的上議院，直到於 1950 年遭到廢除為止。
The supremacy of parliament over the Crown and other government institutions was established in England by the Bill of Rights 1689 and has been ratified as law in New Zealand.	國會的至高權力在皇室及其他政府機構之上，其法源依據為英國於 1689 年頒布的《權利法案》(Bill of Rights)，後來由紐西蘭政府批准入法。
The House of Representatives is democratically elected and a government is formed from the party or coalition with the majority of seats.	眾議院經民主選舉產生，然後由掌握過半席次的政黨或聯盟組建政府。
If no majority is formed, a minority government can be formed if support from other parties during confidence and supply votes is assured.	如果沒有任一政黨或聯盟取得過半席次，可在具有信任基礎且不影響選票權益的前提下取得其他政黨團體的支持，組建少數政府。
The governor-general appoints ministers under advice from the prime minister, who is by convention the parliamentary leader of the governing party or coalition.	總督可任命由總理提名的部會首長。依照慣例，總理為掌握國會多數席次的執政黨或執政聯盟的領導人。
Cabinet, formed by ministers and led by the prime minister, is the highest policy-making body in government and responsible for deciding significant government actions.	內閣由各部會首長組成，由總理負責領導，為政府體制中負責制定政策的最高權力機構，負責為政府做出重大決策。
Members of Cabinet make major decisions collectively, and are therefore collectively responsible for the consequences of these decisions.	閣員會集體做出重要決策，也因此會集體負責其決策後果。
A parliamentary general election must be called no later than three years after the previous election.	國會普選必須在前一任期開始後的三年內舉行。
Almost all general elections between 1853 and 1993 were held under the first-past-the-post voting system.	在 1853 年至 1993 年間的所有普選均採用領先者當選 (first-past-the-post) 做為票選制度。
Since the 1996 election, a form of proportional representation called mixed-member proportional (MMP) has been used.	從 1996 年的選舉開始改用結合了政黨比例代表的混合制 (mixed-member proportional，簡稱 MMP)。
Under the MMP system, each person has two votes; one is for a candidate standing in the voter's electorate and the other is for a party.	在 MMP 票選制度下，每一位選民都有兩張票，一張投給選區內的政黨候選人，另一張票則是投給政黨。
Since the 2014 election, there have been 71 electorates (which include seven Māori electorates in which only Māori can optionally vote), and the remaining 49 of the 120 seats are assigned so that representation in parliament reflects the party vote, with the threshold that a party must win at least one electorate or 5% of the total party vote before it is eligible for a seat.	自 2014 年的選舉開始，全國劃分為 71 個選區 (其中包括 7 個只有毛利族人可以投票的專屬選區)，總共 120 席國會議員中剩下的 49 席則會按照政黨得票比例依序分配給各個政黨。任一政黨必須至少贏得一個選區，或是得票率超過總政黨票數的 5% 才能取得席次分配資格。 
Elections since the 1930s have been dominated by two political parties, National and Labour.	自 1930 年代的選舉以來，幾乎都是兩大政黨 (國家黨和工黨) 的天下。
Between March 2005 and August 2006, New Zealand became the first country in the world in which all the highest offices in the land—head of state, governor-general, prime minister, speaker and chief justice—were occupied simultaneously by women.	在 2005 年 3 月至 2006 年 8 月期間，紐西蘭成為全球第一個所有政府首長均同時由女性擔任 (包括國家元首、總督、總理、發言人和首席大法官) 的國家。
The current prime minister is Jacinda Ardern, who has been in office since 26 October 2017.	現任總理為 Jacinda Ardern，於 2017 年 10 月 26 日走馬上任。
She is the country's third female prime minister.	她是紐西蘭史上第三位女總理。
New Zealand's judiciary, headed by the chief justice, includes the Supreme Court, Court of Appeal, the High Court, and subordinate courts.	紐西蘭的司法機關以首席大法官為首，下轄最高法院、上訴法院、高等法院和初等法院。
Judges and judicial officers are appointed non-politically and under strict rules regarding tenure to help maintain judicial independence.	法官和司法官員均為非政治任命，其任期受到嚴格法律規範，以協助維護司法獨立。
This theoretically allows the judiciary to interpret the law based solely on the legislation enacted by Parliament without other influences on their decisions.	理論上，這樣會讓司法機關得以單純依照國會所制定的法律來詮釋相關條文，在決策過程中不會受到其他影響。
New Zealand is identified as one of the world's most stable and well-governed states.	紐西蘭是全球公認政局最穩定且治理表現最為良好的國家。
As at 2017, the country was ranked fourth in the strength of its democratic institutions, and first in government transparency and lack of corruption.	2017 年，紐西蘭的民主政治實力排行第四，政府透明程度及清廉程度則穩居第一。
A 2017 Human Rights Report by the U.S. Department of State noted that the government generally respected the rights of individuals, but voiced concerns regarding the social status of the Māori population.	美國國務院於 2017 年發表的《人權報告》(Human Rights Report) 中提到紐西蘭政府能普遍尊重每一位民眾的個人權利，但也對於毛利族人的社會地位表達關切。
New Zealand ranks highly for civic participation in the political process, with 77% voter turnout during recent elections, compared to an OECD average of 69%.	紐西蘭的公民政治參與度名列前茅，最近幾次選舉的投票率平均達到七成七，相較於經濟合作暨發展組織 (OECD) 成員國的平均值僅達六成九。
Early colonial New Zealand allowed the British Government to determine external trade and be responsible for foreign policy.	早年仍處於殖民時期的紐西蘭會讓英國政府決定海外貿易及外交政策。
The 1923 and 1926 Imperial Conferences decided that New Zealand should be allowed to negotiate its own political treaties and the first commercial treaty was ratified in 1928 with Japan.	在 1923 年至 1926 年間，帝國會議決定開放讓紐西蘭自行協商政治條約，並於 1928 年與日本正式簽署第一份商業條約。
On 3 September 1939 New Zealand allied itself with Britain and declared war on Germany with Prime Minister Michael Joseph Savage proclaiming, "Where she goes, we go; where she stands, we stand."	1939 年 9 月 3 日，紐西蘭與英國結盟，共同向德國宣戰。當時的總理 Michael Joseph 曾公開宣告：「我們願隨女皇前行，願隨女皇力抗強敵」。
In 1951 the United Kingdom became increasingly focused on its European interests, while New Zealand joined Australia and the United States in the ANZUS security treaty.	1951 年，英國開始日益關注在歐陸國家之間的利弊得失，此時紐西蘭已經加入由澳洲和美國主導的澳紐美安全保障條約 (ANZUS security treaty)。
The influence of the United States on New Zealand weakened following protests over the Vietnam War, the refusal of the United States to admonish France after the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior, disagreements over environmental and agricultural trade issues and New Zealand's nuclear-free policy.	美國對於紐西蘭造成的影響，弱化了之後反越戰、反對美國在彩虹勇士號沈船後責怪法國，以及針對環境、農業交易及反核政策等議題表達反對意見的抗爭力道。
Despite the United States' suspension of ANZUS obligations the treaty remained in effect between New Zealand and Australia, whose foreign policy has followed a similar historical trend.	儘管美國暫時擱置了 ANZUS 條約中明定的義務，該項條約仍然在紐澳雙方之間具有實質效力，兩者的外交政策也依循著相似的歷史趨勢。
Close political contact is maintained between the two countries, with free trade agreements and travel arrangements that allow citizens to visit, live and work in both countries without restrictions.	這兩個國家向來在政治上合作無間，並共同簽署了多項自由貿易及旅遊協定，讓彼此的公民能夠在兩國之間隨意旅遊、居住與工作，不受任何拘束。
In 2013 there were about 650,000 New Zealand citizens living in Australia, which is equivalent to 15% of the resident population of New Zealand.	到了 2013 年。大約有六十五萬名紐西蘭公民住在澳洲，相當於紐西蘭常住人口總數的一成五。
New Zealand has a strong presence among the Pacific Island countries.	紐西蘭在太平洋島國之間的地位舉足輕重。
A large proportion of New Zealand's aid goes to these countries and many Pacific people migrate to New Zealand for employment.	紐西蘭的對外援助有一大部分給了這些島國，而且有許多太平洋島國的居民會為了就業機會遷居至紐西蘭。
Permanent migration is regulated under the 1970 Samoan Quota Scheme and the 2002 Pacific Access Category, which allow up to 1,100 Samoan nationals and up to 750 other Pacific Islanders respectively to become permanent New Zealand residents each year.	1970 年的《薩摩亞移民配額方案》(Samoan Quota Scheme) 及 2002 年的《太平洋島國移民簽證分類制度》(Pacific Access Category) 分別規範了國外移民永久居留的相關事宜，每年最多開放讓 1,100 名薩摩亞國民及 750 名其他島國的公民成為紐西蘭的永久居民。
A seasonal workers scheme for temporary migration was introduced in 2007 and in 2009 about 8,000 Pacific Islanders were employed under it.	適合短期移民的季節性工作簽證計畫則於 2007 年開始實行，到了 2009 年已經有大約 8,000 名太平洋島國民眾透過此計畫受僱工作。
A regional power, New Zealand is involved in the Pacific Islands Forum, the Pacific Community, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Regional Forum (including the East Asia Summit).	紐西蘭身為區域強國，接連參與了太平洋島國論壇 (Pacific Islands Forum)、太平洋共同體 (the Pacific Community)、亞太經濟合作會議 (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation) 以及東協區域論壇 (Association of Southeast Asian Nations Regional Forum) 和論壇中的東亞高峰會 (the East Asia Summit)。
New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and participates in the Five Power Defence Arrangements.	紐西蘭為聯合國以及經濟合作暨發展組織 (OECD) 的成員國，此外也參與了《五國聯防協議》(Five Power Defence Arrangements)。
In computing, a printer is a peripheral device which makes a persistent representation of graphics or text on paper.	在使用電腦時，印表機是能夠讓圖像及文字重現於紙上的一項電腦周邊設備。
While most output is human-readable, bar code printers are an example of an expanded use for printers.	儘管大多數的輸出項目都是人類能夠閱讀理解的內容，條碼印表機卻展現出印表機更為廣泛的用途。
The first computer printer designed was a mechanically driven apparatus by Charles Babbage for his difference engine in the 19th century; however, his mechanical printer design was not built until 2000.	第一台電腦印表機為以機械驅動的儀器設備，由 Charles Babbage 於十九世紀為了自己的差分機 (difference engine) 所設計而成。然而，他的機械印表機設計卻直到西元 2000 年才付諸實現。
The first electronic printer was the EP-101, invented by Japanese company Epson and released in 1968.	第一台電子印表機為 EP-101，由日本的愛普生 (Epson) 公司所發明，並於 1968 年正式亮相。
The first commercial printers generally used mechanisms from electric typewriters and Teletype machines.	第一批商用印表機一般而言都是運用電動打字機及電傳打字機的機械原理。
The demand for higher speed led to the development of new systems specifically for computer use.	為因應更高的速度需求，開始出現專門為電腦使用所設計的新系統。
In the 1980s there were daisy wheel systems similar to typewriters, line printers that produced similar output but at much higher speed, and dot matrix systems that could mix text and graphics but produced relatively low-quality output.	到了 1980 年代，相繼出現與打字機相仿的菊輪系統 (daisy wheel system)、能夠以更高速度輸出相似內容的行式印表機 (line printer)，以及能夠結合文字及圖像，但輸出品質不甚理想的點陣圖系統 (dot matrix system)。 
The plotter was used for those requiring high quality line art like blueprints.	繪圖機 (plotter) 則是專門用來繪製如建築藍圖等要求高品質的線條圖。
The introduction of the low-cost laser printer in 1984 with the first HP LaserJet, and the addition of PostScript in next year's Apple LaserWriter, set off a revolution in printing known as desktop publishing.	第一台 HP LaserJet 系列印表機於 1984 上市，開始出現價格低廉的雷射印表機。隔年，蘋果公司推出附加了 PostScript 程式語言的 LaserWriter 印表機，掀起了如今稱為「桌上出版」的印刷技術革命。
Laser printers using PostScript mixed text and graphics, like dot-matrix printers, but at quality levels formerly available only from commercial typesetting systems.	使用 PostScript 語法的雷射印表機能夠像點陣圖印表機那樣結合文字和圖像，卻能擁有之前只能靠商用打字機系統達到的品質水準。
By 1990, most simple printing tasks like fliers and brochures were now created on personal computers and then laser printed; expensive offset printing systems were being dumped as scrap.	到了 1990 年，如宣傳單和手冊等十分簡單的印刷作業，都能透過個人電腦設計排版，然後用雷射印表機列印出來。昂貴的平版印刷系統頓時被棄如敝屣。
The HP Deskjet of 1988 offered the same advantages as a laser printer in terms of flexibility, but produced somewhat lower quality output (depending on the paper) from much less expensive mechanisms.	於 1988 年推出的 HP DeskJet 系列印表機和雷射印表機同樣享有靈活精巧等優點，卻能透過更加低廉的機械運作方式產出品質還不算太差 (取決於紙張材質) 的輸出內容。
Inkjet systems rapidly displaced dot matrix and daisy wheel printers from the market.	噴墨印刷系統迅速取代了市面上的點陣圖及菊輪印表機。
By the 2000s high-quality printers of this sort had fallen under the $100 price point and became commonplace.	到了西元 2000 年之後，這類高品質的印表機售價跌破百元美金，成為日常設備。
The rapid update of internet email through the 1990s and into the 2000s has largely displaced the need for printing as a means of moving documents, and a wide variety of reliable storage systems means that a "physical backup" is of little benefit today.	從 1990 年代到 2000 年後，網際網路的電子郵件系統日新月異，成為搬移文件檔案的新方法，大幅取代了印刷需求，再加上有各式各樣安全可靠的儲存系統，「實體備份」如今不再具有優勢。
Even the desire for printed output for "offline reading" while on mass transit or aircraft has been displaced by e-book readers and tablet computers.	即便是在大眾運輸工具或飛機上「離線閱讀」紙本印刷品的慾望，也已經讓電子書閱讀器和平板電腦取而代之。
Today, traditional printers are being used more for special purposes, like printing photographs or artwork, and are no longer a must-have peripheral.	如今，傳統印表機更常運用在列印照片或藝術作品等特殊目的，不再是必備的電腦周邊設備。
Starting around 2010, 3D printing became an area of intense interest, allowing the creation of physical objects with the same sort of effort as an early laser printer required to produce a brochure.	3D 列印技術大約從 2010 年開始發展，並逐漸成為讓眾人備感興趣的領域。3D 列印能夠像早期的雷射印表機在列印手冊那樣，輕鬆列印出實體物品。
These devices are in their earliest stages of development and have not yet become commonplace.	這些裝置都還在初步研發階段，尚未普及化。
Personal printers are primarily designed to support individual users, and may be connected to only a single computer.	個人印表機主要是用來支援個人使用者，僅能連接到一台電腦上。
These printers are designed for low-volume, short-turnaround print jobs, requiring minimal setup time to produce a hard copy of a given document.	這些印表機都是專為數量少且週期短的列印工作所設計，只需要花點時間安裝設定就能產出所輸入文件的紙本複本。
However, they are generally slow devices ranging from 6 to around 25 pages per minute (ppm),	然而這些印表機一般來說速度都不快，每分鐘大約可列印 6 至 25 頁，
and the cost per page is relatively high.	而且每一頁的平均成本都相對高了些。
However, this is offset by the on-demand convenience.	不過，其隨插即用的便利性倒是能彌補這些缺點。
Some printers can print documents stored on memory cards or from digital cameras and scanners.	有些印表機可以列印儲存在記憶卡中或是透過數位相機和掃瞄器擷取的文件檔案。
Networked or shared printers are "designed for high-volume, high-speed printing".	可連接網路或進行共享的印表機則是「專門用來進行大量且高速的列印作業」。
They are usually shared by many users on a network and can print at speeds of 45 to around 100 ppm.	這類印表機通常會透過網路連線共享給多位使用者，列印速度大約為每分鐘 45 至 100 頁。
The Xerox 9700 could achieve 120 ppm.	Xerox 9700 印表機可達到每分鐘 120 頁。
A virtual printer is a piece of computer software whose user interface and API resembles that of a printer driver, but which is not connected with a physical computer printer.	虛擬印表機為一款電腦軟體，其使用者介面及應用程式介面均類似印表機的驅動程式，只不過並未連接到實體的電腦印表機。
A virtual printer can be used to create a file which is an image of the data which would be printed, for archival purposes or as input to another program, for example to create a PDF or to transmit to another system or user.	虛擬印表機可以用來把所要列印的資料圖檔另建新檔封存，或是輸入到另一個程式中，例如建立 PDF 檔或是傳送至另一個系統或另一位使用者。
A barcode printer is a computer peripheral for printing barcode labels or tags that can be attached to, or printed directly on, physical objects.	條碼印表機為用來列印條碼貼標或附加標籤的電腦周邊設備，也可以直接列印在實體物品上。
Barcode printers are commonly used to label cartons before shipment, or to label retail items with UPCs or EANs.	條碼印表機通常會用來在運送貨物之前貼標紙箱，或是將零售貨品貼上通用產品代碼 (UPC) 或歐洲商品條碼 (EAN) 等標籤。
A 3D printer is a device for making a three-dimensional object from a 3D model or other electronic data source through additive processes in which successive layers of material (including plastics, metals, food, cement, wood, and other materials) are laid down under computer control.	3D 印表機是用來將 3D 模型或其他來源的電子資料製成立體物件的裝置。該裝置會在電腦操控下，透過疊加程序一層一層鋪上列印材料 (包括塑膠、金屬、食物、水泥、木頭和其他材料)。
It is called a printer by analogy with an inkjet printer which produces a two-dimensional document by a similar process of depositing a layer of ink on paper.	列印過程就像是噴墨印表機在紙上噴灑上一層墨水，進而列印出一份 2D 文件。
The choice of print technology has a great effect on the cost of the printer and cost of operation, speed, quality and permanence of documents, and noise.	選擇不同的列印技術，對於印表機和列印操作的費用成本、速度、品質、文件的耐久程度以及噪音都有著相當大的影響。
Some printer technologies do not work with certain types of physical media, such as carbon paper or transparencies.	有些印表機的列印技術不適用於某些類型的實體媒介，比如厚紙板或是透明幻燈片。
A second aspect of printer technology that is often forgotten is resistance to alteration: liquid ink, such as from an inkjet head or fabric ribbon, becomes absorbed by the paper fibers, so documents printed with liquid ink are more difficult to alter than documents printed with toner or solid inks, which do not penetrate below the paper surface.	印表機技術有另一個經常讓人忘卻的特點，那就是它能防止更動：從噴嘴或色帶噴灑而出的液體墨水會讓紙纖維吸收進去。因此，相較於使用碳粉或固體墨水列印出來但墨跡並未穿透紙張表面的文件，使用液體墨水列印的文件會更加難以更動內容。
Cheques can be printed with liquid ink or on special cheque paper with toner anchorage so that alterations may be detected.	支票可以使用液體墨水列印，或是使用碳粉打印在特殊的支票用紙上，如此便可檢測出任何更動之處。
The machine-readable lower portion of a cheque must be printed using MICR toner or ink.	支票可以用機器識讀的下半部必須使用 MICR 碳粉或墨水列印。
Banks and other clearing houses employ automation equipment that relies on the magnetic flux from these specially printed characters to function properly.	銀行和其他票據交換所會採用自動偵測設備，唯有感應到這些特殊印刷字元的磁通量才能正常運作。
The following printing technologies are routinely found in modern printers:	下列均為會在現代印表機中經常看見的列印技術：
A laser printer rapidly produces high quality text and graphics.	雷射印表機快速列印出高品質的文字和圖像。
As with digital photocopiers and multifunction printers (MFPs), laser printers employ a xerographic printing process but differ from analog photocopiers in that the image is produced by the direct scanning of a laser beam across the printer's photoreceptor.	如同數位影印機和多功能印表機 (MFP)，雷射印表機也採用了靜電印刷程序。靜電印刷與類比式影印機的不同之處，在於它是使用雷射光柱在印表機的感光接受器上橫掃而過，直接掃描並生成圖像。
Another toner-based printer is the LED printer which uses an array of LEDs instead of a laser to cause toner adhesion to the print drum.	另一款使用碳粉的印表機為 LED 印表機，用一整排 LED 燈來取代雷射光束，讓碳粉吸附在列印磁鼓上。
Inkjet printers operate by propelling variably sized droplets of liquid ink onto almost any sized page.	噴墨印表機是藉由將不同大小的液體墨點噴射在紙張上來完成列印，幾乎各種大小的紙張都適用。
They are the most common type of computer printer used by consumers.	這類印表機是目前消費者最常使用的電腦印表機。
Solid ink printers, also known as phase-change printers, are a type of thermal transfer printer.	固體墨水印表機，別名為相位變更 (phase-change) 印表機，為使用熱傳導技術的印表機類別。
They use solid sticks of CMYK-coloured ink, similar in consistency to candle wax, which are melted and fed into a piezo crystal operated print-head.	這類印表機會使用標準四色 (CMYK) 固體墨條，墨條的質地類似蠟燭，會遇熱熔化並滴入由壓電晶體操控的列印頭。
The printhead sprays the ink on a rotating, oil coated drum.	列印頭會將墨水灑在不停旋轉且抹上一層油質的鼓面上。
The paper then passes over the print drum, at which time the image is immediately transferred, or transfixed, to the page.	接著紙張會通過列印鼓輪，圖像就會立即轉印到紙上。
Solid ink printers are most commonly used as colour office printers, and are excellent at printing on transparencies and other non-porous media.	固體墨水印表機最常用來當作辦公室內的彩色印表機，並且對於透明投影片或其他不會滲漏的媒介物質有絕佳的列印效果。
Solid ink printers can produce excellent results.	固體墨水印表機能夠列印出效果絕佳的成品。
Acquisition and operating costs are similar to laser printers.	購置成本和操作費用與雷射印表機不相上下。
Drawbacks of the technology include high energy consumption and long warm-up times from a cold state.	這項技術的缺點包括了高耗能及需要相當長的暖機時間。
Also, some users complain that the resulting prints are difficult to write on, as the wax tends to repel inks from pens, and are difficult to feed through automatic document feeders, but these traits have been significantly reduced in later models.	此外，有些使用者會抱怨說列印出來的成品很難用筆在上面書寫，因為表層的墨蠟會排斥筆寫出來的墨水，而且也難以送入自動送稿機。不過這些特性都在後來的機型中有顯著改善。
In addition, this type of printer is only available from one manufacturer, Xerox, manufactured as part of their Xerox Phaser office printer line.	除此之外，全球僅剩下全錄公司 (Xerox) 在製造這類印表機，屬於公司旗下 Xerox Phaser 事務機產線的一部分。
Previously, solid ink printers were manufactured by Tektronix, but Tek sold the printing business to Xerox in 2001.	在此之前，固體墨水印表機都是由太克公司 (Tektronix) 生產製造，不過太克公司已經於 2001 年將印表機事業部門出售給全錄公司。
A dye-sublimation printer (or dye-sub printer) is a printer which employs a printing process that uses heat to transfer dye to a medium such as a plastic card, paper or canvas.	熱昇華印表機 (或稱為熱轉印機) 為運用熱能將染料轉印到塑膠卡片、紙張或畫布上的印表機。
The process is usually to lay one colour at a time using a ribbon that has colour panels.	這過程通常會使用上面附有調色板的色帶，一次只會印上一種顏色。
Dye-sub printers are intended primarily for high-quality colour applications, including colour photography; and are less well-suited for text.	熱轉印機主要應用在高畫質的彩色印刷上 (包含彩色照片)，較不適合用來轉印文字。
While once the province of high-end print shops, dye-sublimation printers are now increasingly used as dedicated consumer photo printers.	這類印表機曾是高檔印刷商行的專屬設備，如今逐漸成為專門用來轉印顧客照片的印表機。
Thermal printers work by selectively heating regions of special heat-sensitive paper.	熱感式印表機會選擇性加熱特殊感熱紙的不同區塊。
Monochrome thermal printers are used in cash registers, ATMs, gasoline dispensers and some older inexpensive fax machines.	單色熱感式印表機會運用在收銀機、自動提款機、加油機和某些老舊的廉價傳真機上。
Colours can be achieved with special papers and different temperatures and heating rates for different colours; these coloured sheets are not required in black-and-white output.	使用特殊的感熱紙及不同的溫度和加熱速率可列印出彩色圖樣。不過黑白輸出機台並不需要使用這些彩色感熱紙。
One example is Zink (a portmanteau of "zero ink").	Zink 技術 (「零墨水」(zero ink) 的簡寫代稱) 為其中一個範例。
The following technologies are either obsolete, or limited to special applications though most were, at one time, in widespread use.	下列技術均曾經廣泛使用過，但如今大多不是已經過時就是僅限於特殊應用。
Impact printers rely on a forcible impact to transfer ink to the media.	撞擊式印表機是靠強烈的撞擊力道將墨水轉印到媒介物質上。
The impact printer uses a print head that either hits the surface of the ink ribbon, pressing the ink ribbon against the paper (similar to the action of a typewriter), or, less commonly, hits the back of the paper, pressing the paper against the ink ribbon (the IBM 1403 for example).	撞擊式印表機會使用列印頭來敲擊墨水色帶的表面，將色帶按壓在紙上 (類似打字機的打印動作)，或是 (但這比較不常見) 敲擊紙張背面，將紙按壓在色帶上 (例如 IBM 的 1403 型印表機就是如此)。
All but the dot matrix printer rely on the use of fully formed characters, letterforms that represent each of the characters that the printer was capable of printing.	在所有類型的印表機中，只有點陣式印表機需要使用完整字元，每一個字元都必須為印表機能夠列印出來的字形樣式。
In addition, most of these printers were limited to monochrome, or sometimes two-color, printing in a single typeface at one time, although bolding and underlining of text could be done by "overstriking", that is, printing two or more impressions either in the same character position or slightly offset.	除此之外，這類印表機大多數都侷限於單色 (有時可以是雙色)，而且一次只能列印單一字體。不過粗體和底線倒是可以藉由「重複撞擊」列印出來，也就是在同樣的字元位置或是略為偏移的位置壓印兩次以上。
Impact printers varieties include typewriter-derived printers, teletypewriter-derived printers, daisywheel printers, dot matrix printers and line printers.	撞擊式印表機的各類機型包括了打字印表機、電傳打字印表機、菊輪印表機、點陣式印表機以及行式印表機。
Dot matrix printers remain in common use in businesses where multi-part forms are printed.	點陣式印表機至今仍常見於商務場合，負責列印多合一表單。
An overview of impact printing contains a detailed description of many of the technologies used.	概觀撞擊列印技術，其中囊括了許多所用技術的詳盡描述。
Several different computer printers were simply computer-controllable versions of existing electric typewriters.	有幾款不同的電腦印表機其實只是可透過電腦操控的現代電子打字機。
The Friden Flexowriter and IBM Selectric-based printers were the most-common examples.	Friden Flexowriter 電傳印表機和 IBM 電動打字印表機為當時最常見的兩個例子。
The Flexowriter printed with a conventional typebar mechanism while the Selectric used IBM's well-known "golf ball" printing mechanism.	Flexowriter 印表機是透過傳統的打字連動桿機械結構來進行列印，電動打字印表機則使用 IBM 頗負盛名的「高爾夫球」機械列印結構。 
In either case, the letter form then struck a ribbon which was pressed against the paper, printing one character at a time.	兩者都是以字體敲擊色帶並按壓到紙上，一次壓印一個字元。
The maximum speed of the Selectric printer (the faster of the two) was 15.5 characters per second.	電動打字印表機的最高速度 (兩者間較快的一款) 為每秒列印 15.5 個字元。
The common teleprinter could easily be interfaced to the computer and became very popular except for those computers manufactured by IBM.	常見的電傳印表機除了由 IBM 製造的電腦之外，也能輕鬆連接其他電腦介面，十分受歡迎。
Some models used a "typebox" that was positioned, in the X- and Y-axes, by a mechanism and the selected letter form was struck by a hammer.	有些機型會使用位於 X 軸和 Y 軸之間的固定式「打字盒」，其機械運作方式為用槌子敲擊所選取的字體。
Others used a type cylinder in a similar way as the Selectric typewriters used their type ball.	其他機型則會使用打字圓筒，使用方式近似於電子打字機在用打字球。
In either case, the letter form then struck a ribbon to print the letterform.	兩者都是以字體去敲擊色帶，進而將字體印上去。
Most teleprinters operated at ten characters per second although a few achieved 15 CPS.	大多數的電傳印表機的操作速度可達到每秒 10 個字元，不過也有少數機型達到每秒 15 個字元。
Daisy wheel printers operate in much the same fashion as a typewriter.	菊輪印表機的運作方式幾乎和打字機一模一樣。
A hammer strikes a wheel with petals, the "daisy wheel", each petal containing a letter form at its tip.	會有一支槌子負責敲擊由諸多瓣片組成的「菊輪」，每一片瓣片的尖端都有一個字母。
The letter form strikes a ribbon of ink, depositing the ink on the page and thus printing a character.	字體會敲擊墨水色帶，在紙上留下墨跡，進而將字元列印出來。
By rotating the daisy wheel, different characters are selected for printing.	轉動菊輪既可挑選不同的字元來進行列印。
These printers were also referred to as letter-quality printers because they could produce text which was as clear and crisp as a typewriter.	這類印表機因為能夠列印出如打字機般清晰俐落的文字，所以也有「鉛字品質印表機」之稱。
The fastest letter-quality printers printed at 30 characters per second.	速度最快的鉛字品質印表機可達到每秒列印 30 個字元。
Liquid ink electrostatic printers use a chemical coated paper, which is charged by the print head according to the image of the document.	液體墨水靜電印表機會使用塗上一層化學物質的影印紙，然後根據文件圖像由列印頭釋放電荷。
The paper is passed near a pool of liquid ink with the opposite charge.	接著紙張會通過帶著相反電荷的液體墨水池附近。
The charged areas of the paper attract the ink and thus form the image.	於是紙上附帶著電荷的區域就會吸附墨水，進而呈現出圖像。
This process was developed from the process of electrostatic copying.	這個列印程序是參考靜電複印的過程所發展出來。
Color reproduction is very accurate, and because there is no heating the scale distortion is less than ±0.1%.	色彩還原十分精準，而且因為過程不會產生熱度，所以比例失真的情形會在 ±0.1% 之間。
(All laser printers have an accuracy of ±1%.)	(所有雷射印表機的精準度都在 ±1% 之間。)
Worldwide, most survey offices used this printer before color inkjet plotters become popular.	彩色噴墨繪圖機廣受歡迎之前，世界各地大部分的測量處所都曾使用過這款印表機。
Liquid ink electrostatic printers were mostly available in 36 to 54 inches (910 to 1,370 mm) width and also 6 color printing.	液體墨水靜電印表機的寬度大多落在 36 至 54 英吋 (910 至 1,370 公釐) 之間，而且提供 6 色列印。
These were also used to print large billboards.	這類印表機以前也會用來列印大型廣告看板。
It was first introduced by Versatec, which was later bought by Xerox.	當年首台靜電印表機是由 Versatec 正式推出，後來由全錄公司收購。
3M also used to make these printers.	3M 公司也曾經製作過這類印表機。
Shampoo (/ʃæmˈpuː/) is a hair care product, typically in the form of a viscous liquid, that is used for cleaning hair.	洗髮精 (Shampoo，發音為：/ʃæmˈpuː/) 為護髮產品，一般而言會是黏稠液狀，可用來清潔頭髮。
Less commonly, shampoo is available in bar form, like a bar of soap.	洗髮精偶爾會以棒狀造型提供使用，就像是一條棒狀肥皂。
Shampoo is used by applying it to wet hair, massaging the product into the hair, and then rinsing it out.	使用洗髮精時，會先抹在濡濕的頭髮上，接著透過按摩讓頭髮吸收進去，最後再用水沖乾淨。
Some users may follow a shampooing with the use of hair conditioner.	有些使用者會在用完洗髮精後抹上護髮乳。
The typical reason of using shampoo is to remove the unwanted build-up of sebum in the hair without stripping out so much as to make hair unmanageable.	一般而言，洗髮精是用來清除頭髮上積累的皮脂，但並不會剝除掉過多皮脂而導致頭髮難以梳理。
Shampoo is generally made by combining a surfactant, most often sodium lauryl sulfate or sodium laureth sulfate, with a co-surfactant, most often cocamidopropyl betaine in water.	一般而言，洗髮精會將界面活性劑 (最常見的是月桂醇聚醚硫酸鈉 (sodium lauryl sulfate) 或肉桂醇聚醚硫酸鈉 (sodium laureth sulfate)) 及共界面活性劑 (最常見的是椰油醯胺丙基甜菜鹼 (cocamidopropyl betaine)) 和水結合在一起。
The sulphate ingredient acts as a surfactant, essentially heavy duty soap that makes it easier to trap oil and grease.	其中硫酸鹽成分的作用為界面活性劑，基本上就像是強力肥皂，能輕鬆將油脂包覆住。
Specialty shampoos are marketed to people with dandruff, color-treated hair, gluten or wheat allergies, an interest in using an organic product, and infants and young children ("baby shampoo" is less irritating).	市面上有各種專門的洗髮精，可提供給有頭皮屑、染髮、對於麩質或小麥過敏、喜歡使用有機產品以及嬰幼兒等不同族群的使用者 (「嬰兒洗髮精」比較不會刺激皮膚)。
There are also shampoos intended for animals that may contain insecticides or other medications to treat skin conditions or parasite infestations such as fleas.	此外還有專供動物使用的洗髮精，可能會包含殺蟲配方或是用來因應其他皮膚狀況或防止跳蚤等寄生蟲感染的藥劑。
The word shampoo entered the English language from the Indian subcontinent during the colonial era.	「shampoo」一詞是在殖民年代從印度次大陸傳入英文語境。
It dates to 1762 and is derived from Hindi chāmpo (चाँपो [tʃãːpoː]), itself derived from the Sanskrit root chapati (चपति), which means to press, knead, soothe.	起源可追溯至 1762 年，從印度文中的「chāmpo (चाँपो [tʃãːpoː])」衍生而來。其字根源為梵文中的「chapati (चपति)」，有按壓、搓揉及舒緩之意。
In the Indian subcontinent, a variety of herbs and their extracts have been used as shampoos since ancient times.	印度次大陸上的居民從遠古時代就開始把各式各樣的草本植物及其萃取物拿來當成洗髮精使用。
A very effective early shampoo was made by boiling Sapindus with dried Indian gooseberry (amla) and a selection of other herbs, using the strained extract.	早年有一種十分有效的洗髮精是將無患子 (Sapindus)、印度油甘果乾 (amla) 及其他精選的草本植物一同放入滾水熬煮，接著把殘渣濾掉，取其萃取液來使用。
Sapindus, also known as soapberries or soapnuts, a tropical tree widespread in India, is called ksuna (Sanskrit: क्षुण) in ancient Indian texts and its fruit pulp contains saponins which are a natural surfactant.	無患子 (別名皂漿果或肥皂果) 為印度境內廣泛栽植的熱帶樹種。在古印度文中，無患子被稱為「ksuna (梵文：क्षुण)」，而且它的果肉含有皂素 (saponins)，為天然的界面活性劑。
The extract of soapberries creates a lather which Indian texts called phenaka (Sanskrit: फेनक).	從皂漿果中提取出來的物質會產生一種皂沫，在印度文中稱為 「phenaka (梵文：फेनक)」。
It leaves the hair soft, shiny and manageable.	這種皂沫可以讓髮質柔軟、有亮澤且容易梳理。
Other products used for hair cleansing were shikakai (Acacia concinna), hibiscus flowers, ritha (Sapindus mukorossi) and arappu (Albizzia amara).	其他可以用來洗淨頭髮的天然產物還有小合歡 (印度文：shikakai/英文：Acacia concinna)、木槿花 (hibiscus flower)、印度無患子 (印度文：ritha/英文：Sapindus mukorossi) 以及阿拉瑪合歡 (印度文：arappu/英文：Albizzia amara)。
Guru Nanak, the founder and the first Guru of Sikhism, made references to soapberry tree and soap in the 16th century.	創立錫克教 (Sikhism) 的首任宗師那納克 (Guru Nanak) 曾在十六世紀時提到皂漿果樹以及肥皂。
Cleansing with hair and body massage (champu) during one's daily bath was an indulgence of early colonial traders in India.	對於早年居住於印度的殖民地商人而言，每天能在洗澡時使用按摩露 (champu) 洗淨頭髮和身體，是莫大的享受。
When they returned to Europe, they introduced the newly learned habits, including the hair treatment they called shampoo.	當他們返回歐洲時，也將這些新嗜好一起帶回去，包括了他們稱之為「shampoo」的洗髮用品。
Sake Dean Mahomed, an Indian traveller, surgeon, and entrepreneur, is credited with introducing the practice of champooi or "shampooing" to Britain.	身兼外科醫師和企業家的印度旅行家 Sake Dean Mahomed 被公認為將「按摩潔淨」(champooi 或 shampooing) 實際引進英國的第一人。
In 1814, Mahomed, with his Irish wife Jane Daly, opened the first commercial "shampooing" vapour masseur bath in England, in Brighton.	1814 年，Mahomed 和他的愛爾蘭裔妻子 Jane Daly 在英格蘭開設了第一家「按摩潔淨」(shampooing) 蒸氣舒壓商業澡堂。
He described the treatment in a local paper as "The Indian Medicated Vapour Bath (type of Turkish bath), a cure to many diseases and giving full relief when everything fails; particularly Rheumatic and paralytic, gout, stiff joints, old sprains, lame legs, aches and pains in the joints".	他在地方報紙上如此描述整體療程：「印度蒸氣藥浴 (土耳其浴的其中一種)，可療癒多種疾病，並能徹底舒緩遭受沉痛打擊的身心靈。對於風濕病、肢體麻痺、痛風、關節僵硬、陳舊扭傷、瘸腿、關節疼痛等症狀效果尤佳。」
During the early stages of shampoo in Europe, English hair stylists boiled shaved soap in water and added herbs to give the hair shine and fragrance.	在歐洲剛開始出現洗髮精的時候，英國的髮型設計師會將肥皂碎屑放在水裡煮，再加入香草植物來讓頭髮既有亮澤又芳香怡人。
Commercially made shampoo was available from the turn of the 20th century.	直到進入二十世紀的時候才出現商業生產的洗髮精。
A 1914 advertisement for Canthrox Shampoo in American Magazine showed young women at camp washing their hair with Canthrox in a lake; magazine advertisements in 1914 by Rexall featured Harmony Hair Beautifier and Shampoo.	Canthrox 洗髮精於 1914 年在《美國雜誌》(American Magazine) 上刊登的廣告中，繪製了一群宿營湖畔的年輕女性在湖中以 Canthrox 洗髮精洗頭髮的畫面。Rexall 公司於 1914 年所刊登的雜誌廣告中則重點推薦了 Harmony Hair Beautifier 及同名的洗髮精產品。
In 1927, liquid shampoo was invented by German inventor Hans Schwarzkopf in Berlin, whose name created a shampoo brand sold in Europe.	1927 年，德國發明家 Hans Schwarzkopf 在柏林發明了液體洗髮精，他的名字也成為一款在歐洲銷售洗髮精的品牌名稱。
Originally, soap and shampoo were very similar products; both containing the same naturally derived surfactants, a type of detergent.	一開始，肥皂和洗髮精是十分相近的產品。兩者都含有同樣的天然界面活性劑，而且都具有洗淨能力。
Modern shampoo as it is known today was first introduced in the 1930s with Drene, the first shampoo using synthetic surfactants instead of soap.	如今常見的現代洗髮精首見於 1930 年代推出的 Drene 洗髮精，這是史上第一款使用合成界面活性劑而非皂素的洗髮精。
Early shampoos used in Indonesia were made from the husk and straw (merang) of rice.	早年在印尼使用的洗髮精是用玉米殼和稻稈 (merang) 製成。
The husks and straws were burned into ash, and the ashes (which have alkaline properties) are mixed with water to form lather.	先將玉米殼和稻稈燒成灰，再將這些 (帶鹼性的) 灰燼混入水中產生泡沫。
The ashes and lather were scrubbed into the hair and rinsed out, leaving the hair clean, but very dry.	接著用這些灰燼和泡沫來刷洗頭髮，再用水沖掉。頭髮是洗乾淨了，但是會非常乾。
Afterwards, coconut oil was applied to the hair in order to moisturize it.	洗完頭髮之後，會再抹上一層椰子油來潤澤頭髮。
Certain Native American tribes used extracts from North American plants as hair shampoo; for example the Costanoans of present-day coastal California used extracts from the coastal woodfern, Dryopteris expansa,	某些美洲原住民族會使用從北美地區植物提取出來的物質來當成洗髮精，例如居住在現今加州沿岸的柯斯塔諾族人 (Costanoan) 就曾從岸邊的廣佈鱗毛蕨 (Dryopteris expansa) 提取用來洗髮的物質。
Before quinoa can be eaten the saponin must be washed out from the grain prior to cooking.	藜麥表皮上的皂苷必須先沖洗乾淨，才能拿來烹煮食用。
Pre-Columbian Andean civilizations used this soapy by-product as a shampoo.	前哥倫布時期的安地斯民族會將這項皂素副產品來當成洗髮精使用。
In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) mandates that shampoo containers accurately list ingredients on the products container.	美國的食品藥物管理局 (FDA) 下令要求所有洗髮精都必須在包裝瓶上確實列出所有成分。
The government further regulates what shampoo manufacturers can and cannot claim as any associated benefit.	政府進一步規範洗髮精製造商能否主張的相關利益內容。
Shampoo producers often use these regulations to challenge marketing claims made by competitors, helping to enforce these regulations.	洗髮精製造商通常會使用這些規範來質疑同業的行銷用語，進而協助加強這些規範的效力。
While the claims may be substantiated, however, the testing methods and details of such claims are not as straightforward.	這些行銷用語雖然都可能有經過證實，然而其檢測方式和詳細內容都不會多直截了當。
For example, many products are purported to protect hair from damage due to ultraviolet radiation.	例如有許多產品聲稱能夠保護頭髮免於紫外線危害。
While the ingredient responsible for this protection does block UV, it is not often present in a high enough concentration to be effective.	儘管負責保護頭髮的成分的確能抗阻紫外線，該成分的濃度卻往往達不到能提供功效的程度。。
The North American Hair Research Society has a program to certify functional claims based on third-party testing.	北美毛髮研究協會 (North American Hair Research Society) 有個計畫能夠經邀請第三方來透過檢測證實這些功能性用語。
Shampoos made for treating medical conditions such as dandruff or itchy scalp are regulated as OTC drugs in the US marketplace.	專門用來療治頭皮屑或頭皮癢的洗髮精都會在美國市場列入成藥規範。
In the European Union, there is a requirement for the anti-dandruff claim to be substantiated as with any other advertising claim, but it is not considered to be a medical problem.	歐盟地區規定，凡是有抗頭皮屑的廣告用語都必須跟其他用語一同經過證實，但歐盟並不認為這屬於醫療問題。
A number of contact allergens are used as ingredients in shampoos, and contact allergy caused by shampoos is well known.	有些接觸性過敏原會用來製造洗髮精，由洗髮精造成的接觸性過敏症狀也算是眾所皆知。
Patch testing can identify ingredients to which patients are allergic, after which a physician can help the patient find a shampoo that is free of the ingredient to which they are allergic.	貼布測試可以識別出哪些患者會對那些成分過敏，接著醫生就能協助患者找到不含過敏成分的洗髮精。
The US bans 11 ingredients from shampoos, Canada bans 587, and the EU bans 1328.	美國禁用了 11 項洗髮精成分，加拿大禁了 587 項，歐盟則禁了 1,328 項，
Cosmetic companies have developed shampoos specifically for those who have dandruff.	化妝品公司有特別針對那些有頭皮屑的客人研發出洗髮精。
These contain fungicides such as ketoconazole, zinc pyrithione and selenium disulfide, which reduce loose dander by killing fungi like Malassezia furfur.	這些洗髮精都內含殺真菌劑 (如酮康唑 (ketoconazole)、吡硫鎓鋅 (zinc pyrithione) 和二硫化硒 (selenium disulfide))，可透過殺死如秕糠馬拉癬菌 (Malassezia furfur) 之類的真菌來減少皮屑產生。
Coal tar and salicylate derivatives are often used as well.	焦油 (coal tar) 和水楊酸 (salicylate) 衍生物也都會經常拿來使用。
Alternatives to medicated shampoos are available for people who wish to avoid synthetic fungicides.	市面上也有藥用洗髮精的替代款式，提供給不想要使用合成殺真菌劑的民眾選購，
Such shampoos often use tea tree oil, essential oils or herbal extracts.	這類洗髮精通常會使用茶樹精油、各類天然精油或是草本精華。
Many companies have also developed color-protection shampoos suitable for colored hair; some of these shampoos contain gentle cleansers according to their manufacturers.	有許多公司也研發出護色洗髮精，適用於有染色的頭髮。這類洗髮精有一部分含有溫和的洗潔成分，依其製造商而有所不同。
They have the advantage of being spill-proof.	這類洗髮產品的優點在於不會溢漏出來。
They are easy to apply; one may simply rub the bar over wet hair, and work the soaped hair into a low lather.	使用起來也很方便：直接將條塊放在濡濕的頭髮上摩擦，直到頭髮都沾滿了些許泡沫即可。
Stiff, non-pourable clear gels to be squeezed from a tube were once popular forms of shampoo, and can be produced by increasing a shampoo's viscosity.	質地黏稠，只能從軟管中擠出來而無法倒出來的潔髮凝露，曾經一度成為廣受歡迎的洗髮精類型，可透過將洗髮精的黏稠度拉高而製造出來。
This type of shampoo cannot be spilled, but unlike a solid, it can still be lost down the drain by sliding off wet skin or hair.	這類洗髮產品不會溢漏出來，卻也並非固體，仍然會沿著濡濕的頭髮或肌膚滑落到排水孔中。
Shampoos in the form of pastes or creams were formerly marketed in jars or tubes.	做成膏狀或乳霜狀的洗髮乳，之前曾以罐裝或管裝形式上市販售。
The contents were wet but not completely dissolved.	其內容物含有一定的濕潤度，但並未完全溶解。
They would apply faster than solids and dissolve quickly.	可以比固體洗髮產品更快抹到頭髮上，並快速溶解於水。
Antibacterial shampoos are often used in veterinary medicine for various conditions, as well as in humans before some surgical procedures.	抗菌洗髮精通常會讓獸醫用來應對各種醫藥需求，以及供人類在進行某些手術前使用。
Closely associated with environmentalism, the "no poo" movement consists of people rejecting the societal norm of frequent shampoo use.	與環保主義密切相關的「No-Poo」運動是由一群拒絕接受將經常使用洗髮精當成社會規範的人士所推動。
Some adherents of the no poo movement use baking soda or vinegar to wash their hair, while others use diluted honey.	該運動的追隨者中有一些人會使用小蘇打粉或是醋來洗自己的頭髮，還有另一群人會使用稀釋過後的蜂蜜。
Other people use nothing, rinsing their hair only with conditioner.	其他人則什麼也不用，只使用護髮乳來清洗自己的頭髮。
In the 1970s, ads featuring Farrah Fawcett and Christie Brinkley asserted that it was unhealthy not to shampoo several times a week.	1970 年代，由 Farrah Fawcett 和 Christie Brinkley 主演的廣告聲稱一週不用洗髮精洗個幾次頭，頭髮就不會健康。
This mindset is reinforced by the greasy feeling of the scalp after a day or two of not shampooing.	頭皮在一天或兩天不用洗髮精洗頭之後所產生的油膩感，進一步強化了這種思維。
Using shampoo every day removes sebum, the oil produced by the scalp.	每天使用洗髮精可清除皮脂，也就是頭皮分泌出來的油脂。
This causes the sebaceous glands to produce oil at a higher rate, to compensate for what is lost during shampooing.	如此一來，皮脂腺會為了補充在洗髮過程中失去的油脂而加快分泌速率。
According to Michelle Hanjani, a dermatologist at Columbia University, a gradual reduction in shampoo use will cause the sebum glands to produce at a slower rate, resulting in less grease in the scalp.	據哥倫比亞大學的皮膚科醫師 Michelle Hanjani 指出，逐步減少使用洗髮精會有助於讓皮脂腺減緩分泌速率，進而減少頭皮的油膩感。
Although this approach might seem unappealing to some individuals, many people try alternate shampooing techniques like baking soda and vinegar in order to avoid ingredients used in many shampoos that make hair greasy over time.	儘管這項方法對於某些人來說不具吸引力，但還是有許多人會為了避免接觸到在多款洗髮精中會讓頭髮逐漸變油的成分，嘗試使用其他方法來取代洗髮精，好比說使用小蘇打粉和醋。
A railway platform is an area alongside a railway track providing convenient access to trains.	鐵路月台為沿著鐵路軌道興建且方便讓乘客搭車的建築區域。
Almost all stations have some form of platform, with larger stations having multiple platforms.	幾乎所有車站都設有某種形式的月台，規模較大的車站裡則會有多條月台。
The world's longest station platform is at Gorakhpur Junction in India at 1,355.40 metres (4,446.9 ft).	世界上最長的車站月台位於印度的戈勒喀布爾聯合車站 (Gorakhpur Junction)，長達 1,355.40 公尺 (約 4,446.9 英尺)。
The Appalachian Trail station in the United States, at the other extreme, has a platform which is only long enough for a single bench.	美國的阿帕拉契登山步道 (Appalachian Trail) 車站則是另一個極端—月台長度僅容得下一張長椅。
Among some United States train conductors the word "platform" has entered usage as a verb meaning "to berth at a station", as in the announcement: "The last two cars of this train will not platform at East Rockaway".	在某些美國的列車調度員口中，會將「platform」一詞會當成動詞，意思是「在車站停靠」，好比這段廣播詞：「本次列車的最後兩節車廂將不會停靠東洛克威站」(The last two cars of this train will not platform at East Rockaway)。
The most basic form of platform consists of an area at the same level as the track, usually resulting in a fairly large height difference between the platform and the train floor.	最基本的月台形式是由一個和軌道高度相當的區域所構成，往往導致月台和車廂地板之間有相當大的高度落差。
This would often not be considered a true platform.	人們通常不會將這種月台當成真正的月台。
The more traditional platform is elevated relative to the track but often lower than the train floor, although ideally they should be at the same level.	更傳統的月台形式會比軌道高出一些，但通常會比車廂地板矮一點，儘管在理想狀態下，這兩者的高度應該要一致。
Occasionally the platform is higher than the train floor, where a train with a low floor serves a station built for trains with a high floor, for example at the Dutch stations of the DB Regionalbahn Westfalen (see Enschede).	偶爾會在低地板車廂來到適用於高地板車廂的月台時，出現月台比車廂地板還高的情形，例如德鐵區域鐵路西伐利亞線 (DB Regionalbahn Westfalen) 位於荷蘭境內的車站 (請參閱恩斯赫德 (Enschede) 相關內容)。
On the London Underground some stations are served by both District line and Piccadilly line trains, and the Piccadilly trains have lower floors.	倫敦地鐵有部分車站為區域線 (District line) 和皮卡迪利線 (Piccadilly line) 共線營運，其中皮卡迪利線的列車車廂地板較低。
A tram stop is often in the middle of the street; usually it has as a platform a refuge area of a similar height to that of the sidewalk (e.g. 100 mm (3.9 in)), and sometimes has no platform.	輕軌車站通常會位於街道中央，且設有和人行道高度相當的候車月台 (比如 100 公釐 (3.9 英吋)，也有些時候不會設置月台。
The latter requires extra care by passengers and other traffic to avoid accidents.	為避免發生意外，沒有月台的車站會需要特別關注乘客和其他交通工具動向。
Both types of tram stops can be seen in the tram networks of Melbourne and Toronto.	在墨爾本和多倫多的輕軌路網中，這兩種車站都會出現。
Sometimes a tram stop is served by ordinary trams with rather low floors and metro-like light rail vehicles with higher floors, and the tram stop has a dual-height platform, as in Amstelveen, Netherlands.	有時候輕軌車站會有地板較低的普通輕軌電車和像地鐵般地板較高的輕軌列車共同停靠，因而設置了雙重高度月台，比如荷蘭阿姆斯多芬市的輕軌系統。
A train station may be served by heavy-rail and light-rail vehicles with lower floors and have a dual- height platform, as on the RijnGouweLijn in the Netherlands.	列車車站也可能會同時提供重軌列車和輕軌列車停靠，因而設置雙重高度月台，比如荷蘭的 RijnGouweLijn 軌道系統。
Platform types include the bay platform, side platform (also called through platform), split platform and island platform.	月台類型包括有港灣式月台、側式月台 (或穿越式月台)、分離式月台和島式月台。
A bay platform is one at which the track terminates, i.e. a dead-end or siding.	港灣式月台會設置於軌道終點 (也就是軌道前方無路或有壁板遮擋)。
Trains serving a bay platform must reverse in or out.	停靠港灣式月台的列車必須反向進出。
A side platform is the more usual type, alongside tracks where the train arrives from one end and leaves towards the other.	側式月台是較為常見的類型，沿著軌道而建，列車會從月台一端進站，再往月台的另一端離站。
An island platform has through platforms on both sides; it may be indented on one or both ends, with bay platforms.	島式月台設有完整的雙側月台，其中一側或兩側均可內縮改建成港灣式月台
To reach an island platform there may be a bridge, a tunnel, or a level crossing.	為方便乘客前往島式月台，站內可能會設有天橋、地下道或是人行穿越道。
A variant on the side platform is the spanish solution which has platforms on both sides of a single through track.	有一種側式月台稱為西班牙式月台，會在一條直穿而過的軌道兩側設置月台。
Some of the station facilities are often located on the platforms.	月台上通常會有一些車站設施。
Where the platforms are not adjacent to a station building, often some form of shelter or waiting room is provided, and employee cabins may also be present.	通常在並未鄰接車站大樓的月台上會設有某種形式的遮蔽空間或候車室，也有可能會出現員工休息室。
The weather protection offered varies greatly, from little more than a roof with open sides, to a closed room with heating or air-conditioning.	月台上遮風擋雨的設施可謂五花八門，從上有往外延伸的遮棚但兩側開放的候車亭到安裝了暖氣或冷氣的密閉候車室，各具特色。
There may be benches, lighting, ticket counters, drinking fountains, shops, trash boxes, and static timetables or dynamic displays with information about the next train.	月台上可能會有長椅、照明設備、售票機、飲水機、店鋪、垃圾桶，以及負責提供下班列車資訊的靜態時刻表或動態顯示螢幕。
There are often loudspeakers as part of a public address (PA) system.	通常也會架設公共廣播系統 (PA) 的播音喇叭。
The PA system is often used where dynamic timetables or electronic displays are not present.	廣播 (PA) 系統通常會在沒有動態時刻表或電子顯示看板的地方使用。
A variety of information is presented, including destinations and times (for all trains, or only the more important long-distance trains), delays, cancellations, platform changes, changes in routes and destinations, the number of carriages in the train and the location of first class or luggage compartments, and supplementary fee or reservation requirements.	系統會提供各式各樣的資訊，包括列車的目的地和發車時刻 (各級列車或僅提供較為重要的長途列車)、車次延遲、取消、月台變更、路線和目的地變更、列車車廂數量和頭等艙或行李車廂的位置， 以及附加費用或預先劃位需求。
Some metro stations have platform screen doors between the platforms and the tracks.	有些地鐵車站在月台和軌道之間設有月台門。
They provide more safety, and they allow the heating or air conditioning in the station to be separated from the ventilation in the tunnel, thus being more efficient and effective.	這些月台門能讓環境更安全，也可將站內的暖氣或冷氣與隧道內的通風隔開來，藉此強化節能減碳和運轉效能。
They have been installed in most stations of the Singapore MRT and the Hong Kong MTR, and stations on the Jubilee Line Extension in London.	新加坡地鐵和香港地鐵的大部分車站以及倫敦銀禧線延伸段的各車站都安裝了月台門。
Platforms should be sloped upwards slightly towards the platform edge to prevent wheeled objects such as trolleys, prams and wheelchairs from rolling away and into the path of the train.	月台邊緣應該要稍微上揚，避免如手推車、嬰兒車和輪椅等裝有輪子的物品滑落到列車軌道上。
Many platforms have a cavity underneath an overhanging edge so that people who may fall off the platform can seek shelter from incoming trains.	有許多月台在突出的邊緣下方留有空間，讓不慎從月台掉下去的人能夠尋求避難，躲過正在進站的列車。
A dangerous practice is sitting on the edge of the platform, which requires withdrawing the legs fast enough when a train arrives.	坐在月台邊緣十分危險，需要在列車抵達時盡快將雙腿抬起來才行。
In high-speed rail, passing trains are a significant safety problem as the safe distance from the platform edge increases with the speed of the passing train.	在高速鐵路上過站不停的列車是重要的安全問題。過站列車的速度越快，距離月台邊緣的安全距離也會隨之增加。
A study done by the United States Department of Transportation in 1999 found that trains passing station platforms at speeds of 240 kilometres per hour (150 mph) can pose safety concerns to passengers on the platforms who are 2 metres (6.6 ft) away from the edge due to the aerodynamic effects created by pressure and induced airflow with speeds of 64 kilometres per hour (40 mph) to 95 kilometres per hour (59 mph) depending on the train body aerodynamic designs.	有一份美國運輸部在 1999 年完成的研究發現，以時速 240 公里 (150 mph) 過站的列車，其氣流壓力所導致的空氣動力學效應會對距離月台邊緣 2 公尺 (6.6 英尺) 的乘造成安全疑慮，並產生速度達到每小時 64 公里 (40 mph) 至每小時 95 公里 (59 mph) 的氣流，其強弱取決於列車車體的空氣動力學設計。
Additionally, the airflow can cause debris to be blown out to the waiting passengers.	此外，氣流會將塵土碎石吹向候車乘客。
If the passengers stand closer at 1 metre (3.3 ft), the risk increases with airflow that can reach speeds of 79 kilometres per hour (49 mph) to 116 kilometres per hour (72 mph).	如果乘客站的位置往前移到 1 公尺處 (3.3 英尺)，那麼會造成風險的氣流速度則為每小時 79 公里 (49 mph) 至每小時 116 公里 (72 mph)。
In United Kingdom, a guideline for platform safety specifies that for the platforms with train passing speeds between 160 kilometres per hour (99 mph) and 200 kilometres per hour (120 mph), there should be a yellow-line buffer zone of 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) and other warning signs.	英國的候車月台安全規章中規定，凡列車通過速度介於每小時 160 公里 (99 mph) 至每小時 200 公里 (120 mph) 之間的候車月台，均應設有寬度達 1.5 公尺 (約 4.9 英尺) 的黃線緩衝區及其他警告標示。
If trains can pass at speeds higher than 200 kilometres per hour (120 mph), the platforms should be inaccessible to passengers unless there are waiting rooms or screened areas to provide protection.	若列車通過速度超過每小時 200 公里 (120 mph)，除非有設置候車室或設有安全屏障的區域，否則應禁止乘客進入該月台空間。
The European Union has a regulation for platforms that are close to tracks with train passing speeds of 250 kilometres per hour (160 mph) or more should not be accessible to passengers unless there is a lower speed limit for trains that intend to stop at the station or there are barriers to limit access.	據歐盟規範，若鄰近軌道上的列車通過速度達到每小時 250 公里 (160 mph) 以上，除非針對會在該站停靠的列車有較低的時速限制或是設有限制通行範圍的障礙物，否則應禁止乘客進入該月台空間。
Platforms usually have some form of warnings or measures to keep passengers away from the tracks.	月台上通常會設有某種形式的警告標示或安全措施，讓乘客遠離軌道。
The simplest measure is markings near the edge of the platform to demarcate the distance back that passengers should remain.	最簡單的措施就是在靠近月台邊緣的地方標示出乘客應該保有的安全距離。
Often a special tiled surface is used as well as a painted line, to help blind people using a walking aid, and help in preventing wheelchairs from rolling too near the platform edge.	通常會使用具有特殊表面的月台磚以及畫線標示，一方面協助盲人使用導盲手杖，另一方面也有助於防止輪椅來到太靠近月台邊緣的位置。
In the US, Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 regulations require a detectable warning strip 24 inches (61 cm) wide, consisting of truncated dome bumps in a visually-contrasting color, for the full length of the platform.	據美國於 1990 年頒布的美國身心障礙人士專法 (Americans with Disabilities Act) 規定，觸知警示條的寬度必須為 24 英吋 (約 61 公分)，含有漆上醒目顏色的平頂圓凸，並且長度與月台相等。
Ideally platforms should be straight or slightly convex, so that the guard can see the whole train when preparing to close the doors.	理想的月台形狀應為筆直或略有弧度，好讓月台警衛在準備關閉車門時能夠對列車狀況一覽無遺。
Platforms that have great curvature have blind spots that create a safety hazard.	彎度大的月台會出現造成安全危害的盲點區塊。
Mirrors or closed-circuit cameras may be used in these cases to view the whole platform.	在這種情況下，可使用鏡子或監視攝影機來查看月台全景。
Also passenger carriages are straight, so doors will not always open directly onto a curved platform – often a platform gap is present.	此外，由於列車車廂均為筆直設計，所以車門不一定會貼著彎曲的月台開啟，時常會出現月台間隙。
Usually such platforms will have warning signs, possibly auditory, such as London Underground's famous phrase "Mind the gap".	通常這類月台會設置警告標示，也有可能會透過語音提醒，比如倫敦地鐵著名的警語：「請小心月台間隙」(Mind the gap)。
There may be moveable gap filler sections within the platform, extending once the train has stopped and retracting after the doors have closed.	月台內可能會設有可填補間隙的伸縮踏板，在列車靠站後伸出，然後在車門關閉後縮回。
The New York City Subway employs these at 14th Street–Union Square on the IRT Lexington Avenue Line and at Times Square on the 42nd Street Shuttle, and formerly at the South Ferry outer loop station on the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line.	紐約地鐵如今在位於 IRT 萊辛頓大道線 (IRT Lexington Avenue Line) 上的 14 街-聯合廣場車站和位於 42 街接駁線 (42nd Street Shuttle) 上的時代廣場站均設有伸縮踏板，之前則曾在位於 IRT 百老匯-第七大道線 (IRT Broadway-Seventh Avenue Line) 上的南渡船頭外環車站 (South Ferry outer loop station) 設置踏板。
In the UK, recent rules require new platforms to be straight.	英國最近修訂的規範明定新建月台必須為筆直外型。
